| Original Full Text | LIBERTY UNIVERSITY A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr A Thesis Project Report Submitted to the Faculty of the John W. Rawlings School of Divinity in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Ministry by Joshua Michael Wallnofer Lynchburg, Virginia October 2024 ii Copyright © 2024 by Joshua Michael Wallnofer All Rights Reserved iii Liberty University John W. Rawlings School of Divinity Thesis Project Report Approval Sheet ______________________________ Dr. Andrea Adams Faculty Mentor ______________________________ Dr. Page Brooks Faculty Reader iv THE DOCTOR OF MINISTRY THESIS PROJECT REPORT ABSTRACT Joshua Michael Wallnofer Liberty University John W. Rawlings School of Divinity, Date Completed Here Mentor: Dr. Andrea Adams This action research thesis project examines a historical, biblical approach to the Lord’s Supper, focusing on chapters 65-67 of the First Apology of the second-century church father, Justin Martyr. The research investigated five themes emphasized by Justin. These crucial subjects include defining those who are the rightful participants in the Lord’s Supper, what spiritual nourishment is found at the communion table, the importance of the regular receiving of the Lord’s Table, the communal nature of the communion meal, and how the church can provide ministry to those absent from worship with the ordinance. The project implemented a six-week small group study based on Justin Martyr’s historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church of Pensacola, Florida. This study addressed an underdeveloped theology and some anemic practices observed in the congregation. Instead of approaching the Lord’s Supper with innocent misunderstanding, morbid introspection, or even flippancy, this action research thesis project countered these postures with a comprehensive understanding of communion, with the desire for the participants to have more faithful participation. This intervention included interviews, a longitudinal Likert survey, a six-week Bible study, and a focus group. The research indicates that transformation in how one participates in the Lord’s Supper to a more faithful practice is possible when dedicated teaching is utilized and the biblical practice, as described by Justin Martyr, is recovered. This research and small group study on the historical, biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper can lay the foundation for future projects on this ordinance of the church. Keywords: Lord’s Supper, Communion, Eucharist, Justin Martyr, Church, Ordinance, Sacrament, Patristic v Acknowledgments First, I must thank my faithful Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ, for all the blessings in my life and any good found in this thesis. Justin Martyr delightfully summarizes our Lord’s work when he writes that Jesus came for the “change and restoration of the human race.”1 I am grateful for Christ saving and transforming me, and I acknowledge that any wisdom in these pages or strength in my life is from Christ alone. I am thankful for His gift of the Lord’s Supper and its weekly restoring and strengthening of my faith. “To him be the glory forever. Amen” (Romans 11:36, Legacy Standard Bible). To my Christ-honoring wife, Melissa, who tirelessly serves our family and has encouraged me every day in life, family, study, and ministry. You are the glue that holds our home together. This work would never have been achievable without your love, care, support, and sacrifice. My heart has full confidence in you, and I lack nothing of value (Prov 31:11). To my incredible children, Samuel and Lydia, thank you for your patience on this journey. Every smile you shared, and our regular neighborhood walks spurred me on to completion. Seeing God work in both of your lives in lovely ways brings me great joy. I am grateful for the leadership and wonderful family of Klondike Church, who have supported and encouraged me through my educational journey. After over twenty years of pastoring, I continue to believe that the local church is “the pillar and support of the truth” (1 Tim 3:15, LSB) and God’s plan to transform the world. My heartfelt gratitude to the dearest brothers and leaders I have served with and learned from past and present: Deacons John Cobb, Daniel Cooke, Luke Hassell, Joshua Reesman, Richard Searles, John Tisdale, and Clarence West; my fellow elder Rev. Frank Butler. I would like to express my gratitude to my study participants from the church family for your commitment to participate in my research. I pray that more congregations will embrace the gift of the Lord’s Supper as a weekly rhythm in their worship and be deeply blessed because of it. I must acknowledge those who have contributed to this action research thesis project in its development and refining. I have great appreciation for Dr. R. Peter Mason and his guidance at the beginning of this project. I deeply value all the excellent suggestions and direction from Dr. Andrea Adams at the conclusion of this journey as a mentor. Thank you, Dr. Adams, for your refining precision that helped me cross the finish line. I am thankful for my friend Dr. Brent Allen and his feedback and support throughout the entire process. As my mentor throughout most of this project, Dr. Bryan M. Litfin has invested immense time, patience, and encouragement in this study. Your books Early Christian Martyr Stories and Getting To Know The Church Fathers were both gateways to the faithful saints of old whose examples God has used to help me press on in my ministry. I and countless other students are indebted to your lifelong commitment to faithful evangelical scholarship. Thank you for going above and beyond to mentor me, challenge me to research more thoroughly, and guide me in writing. I feel honored to have had the opportunity to learn so much from you. 1 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 23.2. vi Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................1 Ministry Context ............................................................................................................................2 Cultural Setting ....................................................................................................................3 Church Programs .................................................................................................................4 Problem Presented .........................................................................................................................6 Purpose Statement .........................................................................................................................8 Basic Assumptions .........................................................................................................................9 Definitions .....................................................................................................................................10 Limitations ....................................................................................................................................21 Delimitations .................................................................................................................................21 Thesis Statement ..........................................................................................................................22 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................24 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................24 The Background to the Eucharist in Justin’s First Apology ..............................................27 An Interlinear of Chapters 65-67 (the First Apology) .......................................................30 Chapter 65: The Baptized Receive the Bread and Cup .........................................30 Chapter 66: The Food Called Eucharist ...............................................................35 Chapter 67: On the Day Called Sunday ................................................................40 A Translation of Chapters 65-67 (the First Apology) ........................................................47 The Participants in The Lord’s Supper ..............................................................................49 A Believing Participant ..........................................................................................51 A Baptized Participant ...........................................................................................53 A Faithful Participant ............................................................................................57 Spiritual Nourishment Found at the Meal ..........................................................................60 A Meal with God ....................................................................................................62 Prayer and Words Attached to the Meal................................................................65 Bread and Wine......................................................................................................67 The Real Presence..................................................................................................70 The Regular Receiving of the Lord’s Table ......................................................................83 The Communal Nature of the Communion Meal ..............................................................85 The Ministry to Those Absent from Worship ....................................................................89 Theological Foundations .............................................................................................................90 The Background to the Lord’s Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 ...............................................92 Paul’s Source for the Lord’s Supper .....................................................................93 Problems Identified in Observing Communion......................................................94 The Institution of the Lord’s Supper ................................................................................100 vii The Presence of Christ .........................................................................................104 Jesus’ Reinterpretation of the Elements ..............................................................106 The Meaning of the Elements ...............................................................................109 Regular Participation in the Lord’s Supper ........................................................112 The Purpose of Paul’s Teaching ......................................................................................113 Consequences for Abusing the Communion Meal ...............................................116 Preparing for Receiving the Elements .................................................................118 Theological Conclusions ..................................................................................................121 Theoretical Foundations ............................................................................................................122 The Use of a Catechism for the Transformation of Participation ....................................125 The Use of a Small Group Study for Transformation of Participation ............................128 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................131 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................133 Intervention Design ....................................................................................................................133 Permissions and Recruitment ...........................................................................................134 Class Curriculum and Meeting Space ..............................................................................137 Project Timeline ...............................................................................................................141 Implementation of Intervention Design ...................................................................................144 Advertising of the Action Research Project.....................................................................144 Recruitment of Participants..............................................................................................145 The Pre-Intervention ........................................................................................................145 The Intervention ...............................................................................................................146 Sessions One to Three ..........................................................................................147 The First Focus Group.........................................................................................151 Sessions Four to Six .............................................................................................151 The Final Focus Group ........................................................................................155 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ..........................................................................................................157 Collective Results .......................................................................................................................157 Data Analysis ..............................................................................................................................159 Church History and Practice ............................................................................................159 Biblical Foundations ........................................................................................................164 Names and the Lord’s Supper ..............................................................................165 Meals and the Lord’s Supper ...............................................................................167 Participants in the Lord’s Supper ........................................................................170 Remembering Christ in The Bread and Cup ........................................................175 The Presence of Christ .........................................................................................178 Frequency of Participation ..................................................................................182 Unity in the Church Body ....................................................................................185 Ministry Through The Lord’s Supper ..................................................................187 Summary of Results ...................................................................................................................190 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION..................................................................................................192 Research Implications ...............................................................................................................193 Research Applications ...............................................................................................................197 viii A Weekly Lord’s Supper Celebration..............................................................................198 A Re-emergence of Eucharist ..........................................................................................200 Refocus Hearts on the Gospel at the Lord’s Supper ........................................................202 A Verbal Fencing of the Lord’s Table .............................................................................204 Order Communion Observance Following the Sermon...................................................206 Intentional Teaching on the Lord’s Supper as Discipleship ............................................208 Research Limitations .................................................................................................................209 Further Research .......................................................................................................................210 Appendix A ..................................................................................................................................213 Appendix B ..................................................................................................................................215 Appendix C ..................................................................................................................................216 Appendix D ..................................................................................................................................218 Appendix E ..................................................................................................................................219 Appendix F...................................................................................................................................222 Appendix G ..................................................................................................................................236 Appendix H ..................................................................................................................................241 Appendix I ...................................................................................................................................242 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................243 IRB Approval Letter / Waiver Page .............................................................................................255 ix Tables 3.1 Avenues for Recruitment of Participants .............................................................135 3.2 Requirements for Participants ..............................................................................136 3.3 Anticipated Project Costs .....................................................................................138 3.4 Small Group Teaching Sessions ..........................................................................141 3.5 Project Timeline ...................................................................................................143 3.6 Session One Overview .........................................................................................148 3.7 Session Two Overview ........................................................................................149 3.8 Session Three Overview ......................................................................................150 3.9 Session Four Overview ........................................................................................152 3.10 Session Five Overview ........................................................................................153 3.11 Session Six Overview ..........................................................................................155 4.1 Likert Survey – Church History…... ....................................................................163 4.2 Likert Survey – Names ........................................................................................164 4.3 Likert Survey – Meals ..........................................................................................169 4.4 Likert Survey – Participants.................................................................................172 4.5 Likert Survey – Participants.................................................................................174 4.6 Likert Survey – Participants.................................................................................175 4.7 Likert Survey – Meaning .....................................................................................177 4.8 Likert Survey – Presence ............................................................................. 180-181 4.9 Likert Survey – Meaning .....................................................................................184 4.10 Likert Survey – Meaning .....................................................................................186 4.11 Likert Survey – Meaning .....................................................................................189 x Illustrations Figures 3.1 Joshua M. Wallnofer, “Church Sanctuary Room Setup”………………………139 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction Many contrasting theological views have been held concerning the Lord’s Supper throughout church history. This has led to different methods of practice and participation concerning this ordinance in the contemporary church. What a congregation believes about communion will significantly impact how the members join in this act of worship and the frequency of observation. The theological understanding of the participant will determine how much preparation should be made, what kind of meditation should be practiced, and whether an individual should partake in communion. Multiple perspectives concerning the ordinance of communion can be held in one congregation, and many will approach the Lord’s Table with little to no accurate understanding of what the Scriptures teach and how the church has historically taken part in this act of worship every Sunday. The fundamental aspects of the Lord’s Supper are having the right participants, understanding the meaning of the elements, and defining the spiritual significance of the act. These themes are central to the very heart of the gospel and could renew and revitalize a congregation and an individual’s weekly worship. This DMIN action research project will explore a historical, biblical approach to the Lord’s Supper, considering all these fundamental elements in the context of Klondike Church in Pensacola, Florida. This chapter will describe the ministry context, problem, and purpose statement and conclude with the project’s thesis statement. The ministry context will explore Klondike 2 Church’s history, present leadership structure, demographics, teaching programs, spiritual community, and the researcher’s relationship with the congregation. The church programs section will explore the church’s current schedule, Bible studies, evangelistic outreaches, and the congregation’s mission statement. Ministry Context The local ministry context for this DMIN action research project is Klondike Church, located in greater Pensacola and Escambia County, Florida. This congregation is a Southern Baptist Church founded in 1907 as a mission church, originally named Missionary Baptist Church. In the 1920s, the congregation changed its name to identify with its small community and the name of the road on which the church is located. Newly renamed, Klondike Baptist Church hired its first part-time minister and began meeting weekly. Since that time, the church has employed thirty-three different pastors, with the current ministry team consisting of a plurality of two elders and four deacons. This researcher serves as an elder within the church and has been the full-time pastor at Klondike since February 2004. The church shortened its name to Klondike Church in 2015 and adopted a reformed Baptist theological commitment in the same year.1 The congregation and leadership have expressed their full support for this action research thesis, providing time, classroom meeting space, and participants to support the completion of this project. 1 The church adopted the Apostles’ Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Baptist Faith and Message 2000, the Abstract of Principles of 1858, and the Cambridge Declaration of 1996 as its confessional standards. The elders of the church also confess The London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689. 3 Cultural Setting Klondike Church is located in the Klondike community, a small neighborhood in Escambia County, Florida. Escambia County is the 21st most populous county in the state of Florida.2 As of July 2022, the population of Escambia County was 322,000. The median household income in 2021 was $56,605,3 lower than the state of Florida average of $69,303.4 The county demographics are a majority Caucasian (68.8%), followed by Black (22.8%), Hispanic or Latino (6.5%), and Asian (3.4%).5 The age demographics within the county are divided into three categories: Ages 0-18 make up 20.7% of the population, ages 19-64 make up 61.3% of the population, and individuals over 65 years of age make up 18% of the population. The median age in Escambia County is 38.5, with ages 0-19 making up 23% of the population, 20-29 making up 15% of the population, ages 30-39 making up 13% of the population, ages 40-49 making up 11% of the population, ages 50-59 making up 12% of the population, ages 60-69 making up 13% of the population, ages 70-79 making up 8% of the population, and ages 80+ making up 4% of the population.6 Members and regular attendees of Klondike Church mirror these demographics ethnically but differ in age range, with a more significant segment of the congregation proportionately minors. The county also has a sizeable Naval base, Naval Air Station Pensacola, which employs more than 16,000 military and 7,400 civilian personnel. As a result, according to 2023 statistics, 2 “Office of Economic and Demographic Research,” Escambia County, Florida Legislature, accessed October 31, 2023, http://edr.state.fl.us/content/area-profiles/county/escambia.pdf. 3 United States Census Bureau, “QuickFacts: Escambia County, Florida,” accessed October 28, 2023, https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/escambiacountyflorida. 4 United States Census Bureau, “Total Population in Florida…”, accessed October 28, 2023, https://data.census.gov/all?q=florida. 5 United States Census Bureau, “QuickFacts.” 6 Census Reporter, “Escambia County, FL,” accessed October 28, 2023, https://censusreporter.org/profiles/05000US12033-escambia-county-fl/. 4 33,022 veterans live in the local community.7 Of the total church membership of 308 individuals, approximately 10% of the congregation that attends weekly are active-duty members of the United States Armed Forces or the immediate family of someone serving. On average, these individuals will attend Klondike Church anywhere from six months to four years before transferring to another assignment outside Naval Air Station Pensacola. Church Programs Klondike Church provides a Sunday morning worship service that follows a covenant renewal pattern of worship, including a call to worship from Scripture where a passage of the Bible is read and public prayer commences the service. This is followed by the singing of a hymn, a public confession of sin using a Scripture text prayed in unity by the congregation, with an assurance of pardon read from the Bible by the presiding elder, and then a pastoral prayer. Next, consecration through the singing of both traditional and contemporary hymn and Psalm arrangements, the responsive reading of a Psalm, a reading of a section from the Gospels, and a unified congregational confession of faith from either the Apostles’ or Nicene Creed follows. An expository sermon is provided, typically preached consecutively through different books of the Bible. The congregation then responds to the sermon through a time of prayer, the singing of a hymn, and the practice of observing the Lord’s Supper. The service concludes with a benediction from God’s Word prayed over the congregation by an elder.8 7 U.S. Navy, “Welcome To Naval Air Station Pensacola,” accessed October 28, 2023, https://cnrse.cnic.navy.mil/Installations/NAS-Pensacola/. 8 This worship service pattern is described in Jeffrey Meyers, The Lord’s Service: The Grace of Covenant Renewal Worship (Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2003) and Jonathan Gibson, “Worship: On Earth as It Is in Heaven,” in Reformation Worship: Liturgies from the Past for the Present, ed. Jonathan Gibson and Mark Earngey (Greensboro, NC: New Growth Press, 2018). 5 Differing from some church congregations, the Lord’s Supper is presented each week after the sermon at Klondike Church. One of the elders gives a biblical charge, usually lasting two to three minutes, seeking to help the congregation prepare their hearts and instructing them in the proper meaning of communion. The elder then leads in prayer, and the congregation is invited to receive communion. A song of worship follows and the congregation may come forward to receive the bread and cup from an elder or deacon. The participants then return to their seats and spend the remaining time in prayer or singing. Following the song, an elder will lead the congregation to take the bread together in unity, followed by the cup. Five adult Bible study classes are offered weekly, one hour before the worship service, and the children and teenagers are divided into four classes based on their grade levels. The combined average attendance for the Bible studies is approximately 100 people. On the last Sunday of each month, the congregation meets after the worship service and spends time eating a themed meal together to encourage relational growth. A biweekly Tuesday women’s Bible study and a weekly Wednesday night family Bible study is also offered. Finally, one bimonthly Sunday night service is held, which includes questions and answers with the pastor and congregation or focuses on a distinct theological subject. The church provides a monthly outreach to the significant homeless population in Escambia County in partnership with a parachurch ministry, the Waterfront Rescue Mission. This outreach provides a meal off-site for seventy-five to one hundred and fifty men who are either homeless or in a recovery program, followed by a worship service. A weekly Most Excellent Way Recovery meeting on campus is provided, with attendance ranging from twenty to thirty people. This meeting has a sizeable evangelistic outreach and supports those seeking to overcome addiction. Klondike is regularly involved in evangelistic outreach to the community 6 either on campus with block parties or by joining with other church or para-church ministries at least quarterly each year. The congregation’s mission statement is as follows: “To be a church passionate about proclaiming and living the gospel by loving God and our community for his kingdom and glory.”9 The foundation passage for this statement is 1 Corinthians 15:1-4, which grounds the gospel as first importance in the believer’s life. The second passage that inspired this mission statement is Matthew 22:37-39, in which Jesus details the greatest and second foremost commandments. They are expressed by loving God with all of one’s faculties supremely, followed by loving one’s neighbor. These verses are the filter by which all events and activities of Klondike are considered. Helping the congregation love God supremely, with the heart, soul, and mind, comes first. Second is loving one’s neighbor through the faithful doing of good works. In this way, believers “live the gospel” by works as they “proclaim the gospel” verbally. Third and finally, all is done to the glory of God (1 Cor 10:31) and the growth of His kingdom, with less emphasis on the numerical growth of Klondike Church. Problem Presented This researcher has observed a contemporary crisis of theological understanding and faithful participation in the ordinance of the Lord’s Supper. Holy Communion is an integral part of church worship that should not be neglected or misunderstood if a congregation desires to be healthy. Many factors have led to this deficit of understanding and anemic practices in this period of church life, as congregations have chosen to take the communion meal infrequently, whether only monthly, quarterly, or annually. The lack of regular observance has led to a 9 Klondike Church, “Objectives and Beliefs,” accessed July 15, 2024, https://lovepensacola.org/objectives-beliefs. 7 shortage of direct teaching on the Lord’s Table, both biblically and historically. For many churches, the Lord’s Supper is hastily added to the end of the service,10 rather than making it a central part of worship. For other congregations, it is quickly observed at the beginning of the service without any preparation or meditation. This researcher has also observed a fear of Roman Catholicism and its doctrine of the Lord’s Supper in many Protestant leaders and churches. This fear has often led to an underdeveloped understanding of communion theology. Many, in a desire to distance themselves from Roman Catholic views, have neglected vital themes concerning the communion meal found in Scripture and emphasized throughout the history of the church. The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 and 2021 led many churches to implement adjustments in format and structure concerning the receiving of the Lord’s Table. Such modifications include the untested practice of online participation in the Lord’s Supper and even the encouragement of modifying the elements of the bread and the cup to accommodate whatever is available in the participant’s home. These issues have been observed externally in the lives of the attendees and members of Klondike Church. Klondike Church also lacks a class taught exclusively on the Lord’s Supper. While there is a weekly introduction and charge before the observance of communion, many themes fundamental to rightful participation have not been examined outside of occasional sermons. This has led to some receiving the table out of innocent misunderstanding. For others, there may be extremes in receiving the communion meal, ranging from flippancy to morbid 10 Jonathan Gibson and Mark Earngey, “Worshiping in the Tradition: Principles from the Pastor for the Present,” in Reformation Worship: Liturgies from the Past for the Present, eds. Jonathan Gibson and Mark Earngey (Greensboro, NC: New Growth Press, 2018), 58. 8 introspection. The problem is that members of Klondike Church lack a comprehensive historical biblical understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper. Purpose Statement The purpose of this DMIN action research project is to implement a six-week study on Justin Martyr’s historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church. This objective will be accomplished by developing and teaching a six-week Bible study based on the prevailing themes in Justin Martyr’s description of the Lord’s Supper. These crucial subjects include defining those who are the rightful participants in the Lord’s Supper, what spiritual nourishment is found at the communion table, the importance of the regular receiving of the Lord’s Table, the communal nature of the communion meal, and how the church can provide ministry to those absent from worship with the ordinance. The participants will consist of a cross-section of adult attendees of Klondike Church. Membership will not be required to participate. The group will be asked to commit to a six-week Bible study with an understanding that participation by attendance, discussion in class, interviews, focus groups, and surveys will be critical to the action research project. Knowledge and sound doctrine concerning the theology of the Lord’s Supper are critically important. A biblical participation in this church ordinance will lead to faithful worship. The participants will learn through the weekly teaching and discussion and can receive the Lord’s Supper in the weekly worship gathering. This action research thesis will provide surveys at the beginning and end of the six weeks to assess whether attendees have developed a more robust historical, theological, and biblically faithful understanding and participation in the Lord’s Supper during worship. The survey administered will measure the knowledge gained concerning the communion meal. Interviews will ascertain how the study has impacted 9 behavioral participation in the Lord’s Supper and any spiritual differences or maturity the participants acknowledge. Focus groups will clarify how the class and curriculum have changed participants’ understanding and participation in the Lord’s Supper. Basic Assumptions This action research project assumes that a group of Christians confronted with proper teaching regarding the Lord’s Supper will have a greater appreciation for the ordinance and, in turn, a more comprehensive engagement in worship services each time the Lord’s Supper is observed. There is a supposition that the Lord’s Supper is a wholistic ordinance that impacts the heart, mind, soul, and strength (Mark 12:30). When the mind is challenged and grows in understanding of communion and the strength of the body is engaged in taking the bread and cup, the heart and soul will also participate more fully in worship. It is assumed that each participant is a truly regenerated Christian. It is also assumed that Jesus commands the Lord’s Supper as a church ordinance, and its observation is required to be a biblically faithful congregation. It is assumed that the Lord’s Supper will be a regular element of worship, like Scripture reading, prayer, and preaching, and that not observing the communion meal or infrequently partaking in it is detrimental to a Christian’s spiritual health. Practically, this researcher assumes that Klondike Church will support this project with the use of its facilities and scheduling. This researcher also assumes that a representative group of members and regular attendees will commit to attending all six of the Bible study classes, participate in the discussions, and ask their unanswered questions. Finally, this researcher assumes each participant will truthfully and consistently participate in the surveys to enable the research analysis. 10 Definitions This action research project primarily concerns Klondike Church’s participation in the Lord’s Supper. It is necessary to provide definitions of specific terms regarding this church ordinance that will be used throughout this action research project. The terms that require clarification are defined in this section to offer explanation and understanding. Since the thesis concerns the second-century Christian Justin Martyr, his three surviving literary works will be defined, as well as his person, and terms concerning the Lord’s Supper, as they are all central to this project. Agape Meal - A name used for the early Christian meal. The Greek word agape (ἀγάπην) is defined as “to have love for someone or something, based on sincere appreciation and high regard.”11 The Agape meal often included the observation of the Lord’s Supper, but it has been suggested that the Lord’s Supper was not always observed at these meals.12 Like the Last Supper of Jesus, which was given in the context of the Passover meal, it included a meal of fellowship and was practiced throughout Christian communities of the first three centuries.13 It was a meal of love for Christ as expressed in the Lord’s Supper and for one another in the church as conveyed in the fellowship and accompanying food. The second-century church father Tertullian describes the Agape in his work, Apology. “It is called by a name which to the Greeks means ‘love.’ Whatever it costs, it is gain to incur expense in the name of piety, since by this 11 Johannes P. Louw et al., s.v. “ἀγάπη,” 2 vols, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, 2nd ed. (New York: NY: United Bible Societies, 1989), 292, Logos. 12 Alistair C. Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape in Early Christian Communities (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2023), 95, ProQuest. 13 Jason S. Sturdevant, “Agape Meal,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016), Logos. 11 refreshment we comfort the needy.”14 Poorer members of Tertullian’s church community benefited from observing the Agape meal. In 1 Corinthians 11, it appears that the Lord’s Supper was taken in the context of the Agape meal15 and Jude 12 (English Standard Version) references it as a “love feast” (ἀγάπαις συνευωχούμενοι). As the worship of the early Christian communities shifted from Saturday evening to Sunday morning, the practice of the Agape feast with the Lord’s Supper attached to it ended.16 Communion - A name often used as a synonymous title for the Lord’s Supper taken from a questionable translation of 1 Corinthians 10:16 in the King James Version and New King James Version.17 The English Standard Version renders the Greek word (κοινωνία) as “participation,” and in the Legacy Standard Bible, it is translated as “sharing.” Paul uses this word to emphasize that those who share in the Lord’s Supper have fellowship with Christ and inward communion with him,18 as well as unity with his spiritual body, the church (1 Cor 10:17).19 Within this action research project, the term “communion meal” will often be used synonymously with communion, reminding the reader of the importance of the elements of the bread and wine in the ordinance and the original connection the Lord’s Supper has to the Agape meal. 14 Tertullian, Apologeticus. 39.16. Tertullian, Apologetic Works and Minucius Felix, Octavius, vol. 10, The Fathers of The Church, trans. Rudolphus Arbesmann, Emily Joseph Daly, and Edwin A. Quain (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2008), 101. 15 Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape, 22. 16 Ibid., 30. 17 Allan J. McNicol, “Lord’s Supper,” in Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, ed. David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, and Astrid B. Beck (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 2000), 822, Logos. 18 Gerhard Kittel et al., s.v. “koinōía,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Abridged in One Volume (Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans, 1985), 449, Logos. 19 Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape, 25. 12 Dialogue of Justin with Trypho, A Jew - Justin Martyr’s third book, believed to have been written later than his works First Apology and Second Apology. This book claims to record conversations that took place over two days in A.D. 140 regarding the correct interpretation of the Old Testament. Justin held this discussion with a learned Jewish rabbi named Trypho and Trypho’s friends.20 Justin recorded this conversation approximately twenty-five years after its occurrence.21 Church historian Eusebius suggests this discussion took place in the city of Ephesus.22 Trypho identifies himself as a Jewish refugee who fled from Palestine, probably during the revolt of Simon Bar Kokhba.23 While the book identifies his opponent as Rabbi Trypho, it has been suggested that Justin’s antagonist may have been the famous Rabbi Tarpho. It has also been proposed that this was an imaginary dialogue, simply a way for Justin to present his teachings concerning the prophecies of the Old Testament and their fulfillment in Jesus and the church.24 Dialogue is a critical work to further understanding of how Christians and Jews related to each other in the second century.25 This book tells Justin’s story of conversion to Christianity after an intellectual pilgrimage (chapters 3-8). Trypho calls on Justin to be circumcised, keep the Sabbath, and do what is commanded in the law of Moses to find mercy 20 Justo L. González, A History of Christian Thought, Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon (Nashville, KY: Abingdon Press, 1970), 103. 21 Bryan M. Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016), 59, ProQuest. Leslie William Barnard suggests the discussion took place A.D. 132 and then Justin penned it A.D. 160. L.W. Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 23-24. 22 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, 4.18. 23 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 1.3. Simon Bar Kokhba led a revolutionary war in Palestine that lasted from A.D. 132 to 135. 24 Justo L. González, “Justin,” in The Westminster Dictionary of Theologians, ed. Justo L. González (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2006), 200-201. 25 Thomas P. Halton, Dialogue with Trypho, ed. Michael Slusser (Washington, D.C: Catholic University of America Press, 2003), xi, ProQuest. 13 with God.26 Jesus is seen by Justin in the Old Testament chiefly through both its prophetic words and through deeds or actions that point toward him as Messiah.27 Numerous suggestions have been given as to why Justin wrote the book. One theory of its recording was to engage Jewish people on Old Testament texts and their prophetic nature, evangelistically leading them to Jesus as Messiah. Others understand it as written for a Christian readership, reinforcing believers in their understanding that the church is the fulfillment of God’s promises in the old covenant and the reason behind why the church does not keep the Mosaic law.28 The book seems to ultimately be an apologetic written to confirm to Justin’s students and the general readership the distinct differences that existed between the rabbinic Judaism of the second century and the Christian faith, and the correct way to interpret the Hebrew Scriptures. It contains 142 chapters in total. Eucharist - A Greek word (Εὐχαριστία) often used as a synonymous title for the Lord’s Supper. The Eucharist derives from the prayer of thanksgiving Jesus made for the bread (Luke 22:19; 1 Cor 11:24). This word means “to express gratitude for benefits or blessings.”29 The depth of the definition of this word will be explored in Chapter Two. Justin Martyr - Justin Martyr (c. A.D. 100-c. A.D. 165) was a church father and one of the most important Greek apologists of the second century.30 Justin was ethnically a Samaritan.31 “Martyr” was not his surname but a title given to him in church history because he died for 26 Willis A. Shotwell, “Justin Martyr (c. 100-c. 165),” in Dictionary of Major Biblical Interpreters, ed. Donald K. McKim (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: InterVarsity Press, 2007), 589, Logos. 27 González, The Westminster Dictionary of Theologians, 201. 28 Halton, Dialogue with Trypho, xiii. 29 Louw et al., s.v. “εὐχαριστία,” 427. 30 González, “Justin,” 200-201. 31 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 120.6. 14 refusing to blaspheme Jesus by committing idolatry.32 His hometown was Flavia Neapolis, a pagan city built near the ruins of biblical Shechem where Jesus had met the woman at the well (John 4:4-43).33 Though born in a biblical city, there is nothing to suggest he was familiar with the Samaritan religion, Moses, or the Prophets as a young man.34 He was raised and educated in a Hellenistic environment and became devoted to philosophy.35 Justin speaks of being brought up in Gentile customs, uncircumcised, and receiving a Greek education.36 Three of his works survive today and are considered unquestionably genuine: First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho.37 Justin was one of the first to engage the broader Greco-Roman culture with the Christian message, as he attempted to correlate the claims of Jesus and the Scriptures with the philosophical principles of his time, giving a reasoned defense of the faith.38 Fourth-century church historian Eusebius of Caesarea wrote that Justin “served as ambassador of the divine Word and fought for the faith through his writings.”39 32 Bryan M. Litfin, Early Christian Martyr Stories: An Evangelical Introduction with New Translations (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2014), 65, ProQuest. 33 Ibid., 63. 34 Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought, 5. Barnard notes that Justin’s grandfather, Bacchius, had a Greek name, and Justin’s name, as well as his father Priscus’s name, were Latin. 35 Hans Dieter Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult,`” in The Eucharist: It’s Origin And Context – Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity Volumes 1-3, ed. David Hellom and Dieter Sanger (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 1797, ProQuest. 36 Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought, 5. See Dialogus cum Tryphone 2.2-6; 29:3. 37 A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note To The First Apology of Justin Martyr,” in The Apostolic Father With Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004), 161. Denis Mins and Paul Parvis note that “Eusebius of Caesarea tells us that Justin wrote a book in defense of the faith addressed to Antoninus Pius, his sons, and the Roman Senate, another defense to the successor of Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, a book against the Greeks, another book against the Greeks entitled Elenchos (Refutation), another treatise on the sole rule of God, a treatise entitled Psaltes (Harpist), another on the soul, and a Dialogue Against the Jews.” Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica, 4.18.1-6, quoted in Justin Martyr, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies, ed. and trans. Denis Minns and Paul Parvis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 33, ProQuest. 38 Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers, 54. 39 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 4.11.8. Eusebius and Paul L. Maier, Eusebius-The Church History: A New Translation with Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 1999), 143. 15 Before his conversion, Justin studied under a teacher of Stoic philosophy, followed by a follower of Aristotle, a Pythagorean teacher, and finally, a Platonist.40 While a Platonist, Justin had a conversation with an older man, as recorded in his Dialogue of Justin with Trypho, A Jew, that showed him the futility of philosophy and led him to the Christian faith.41 The man utilized the Hebrew Prophets to make Christ known to Justin, leading to his conversion.42 Justin’s conversion as a philosopher demonstrates the increasing appeal of the Christian faith to intellectuals of the second century.43 Following his conversion, Justin wore the clothing of a philosopher as a token he had attained the true philosophy44 and served as a freelance teacher in Ephesus and Rome.45 While in Rome, Justin established a Christian philosophical school.46 Eusebius mentions multiple written works of Justin and states they are “helpful treatises, the work of a cultured intellect trained in theology” and encouraged “students to study his writings carefully.”47 Justin wrote his First Apology during the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius, who ruled A.D. 138-161.48 Justin stood against false teachers like Marcion,49 refuted pagan gods as impostors whose origin is found in 40 Litfin, Getting To Know The Church Fathers, 57. 41 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 3-7. 42 Ibid., 7.1-3. 43 Michael W. Holmes, The Apostolic Fathers, Second Edition, trans. J.B. Lightfoot and J.R. Harmer (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989), 10. 44 A. Cleveland Coxe, “Introductory Note To The First Apology of Justin Martyr,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 160, Logos. 45 Litfin, Early Christian Martyr Stories, 65. Litfin calls Justin “the first Christian philosopher in church history.” Ibid., 54. 46 González, A History of Christian Thought, Volume 1, 103. 47 Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 4.11.8. 48 Apologia i 1.1. See also Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 4.11.8. 49 Ibid., 26.5. This is also mentioned by Irenaeus in Adversus haereses 4.6.2 and 5.26.2. 16 the deception of Satan,50 and explained Christian doctrine and practice.51 His witness for Christ led to other philosophers, especially the Cynics, plotting against him.52 This included an opponent mentioned in Second Apology named Crescens, who claimed “that Christians are godless and impious,” and did “so to win favor with the deluded mob.”53 Around A.D. 165, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, Justin was brought to trial before authorities in the city of Rome.54 After confessing his faith in Jesus Christ at the trial, Justin and his companions were beaten with rods and then executed by beheading. This was ordered by a judge named Junius Rusticus for their refusal to make sacrifices to pagan gods55 and is documented in a record of the proceedings called The Acts of Justin, a text written several decades after the events it describes. In one version of this work, Justin’s last recorded words are as follows, “We are confident that if we suffer the penalty for the sake of our Lord Jesus Christ we shall be saved, for this is the confidence and salvation we shall have at the terrible tribunal of our Saviour and Master sitting in judgement over the whole world.”56 In a 50 Apologia i 24.1; 28.1; 54.1. 51 Ibid., 61.1-67.8. 52 Coxe, “Introductory Note to The First Apology of Justin Martyr,” 160. 53 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 3.2. Note that in some critical editions this appears as 8.2 because in the manuscripts of Justin’s works, chapter 4 follows chapter 2 while chapter 3 is found later between chapters 8 and 9. Justin Martyr, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, ed. Walter J. Burghardt et al., trans. Leslie William Barnard, vol. 56, Ancient Christian Writers (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1997), 75, Logos. 54 Barnard suggests the dates of Justin’s martyrdom as c. A.D. 163-167. He writes that the early Roman martyrologies give the date as April 14 and the Syrian chronicle gives the year as A.D. 165. Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought, 13. Mins and Parvis add, “Eusebius’ Chronicon, in the version of Jerome, records Justin’s martyrdom at the year 154.” Eusebius, Chronicon lines 13–18, quoted in Justin Martyr, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies, 32. 55 Litfin, Early Christian Martyr Stories, 66. See Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica 4.16.1-9. 56 Acta Justini et Septem Sodalium (recensio B) 5.6-8. Herbert Musurillo, “The Martyrdom of the Holy Martyrs Justin, Chariton, Charito, Evelpisius, Hierax, Paeon, and Liberian” in The Acts of The Christian Martyrs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972), 52-53. 17 briefer version, they are recounted as, “If we are punished, we have the sure promise of salvation.”57 Lord’s Supper - The name used by Paul in 1 Corinthians 11:20 for the meal instituted by Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels. The mention of the Lord’s Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 represents the earliest mention of the practice in Christian literature.58 This rite involves bread (Matt 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19) and a cup of “the fruit of the vine” (Matt 26:29; Mark 14:25; Luke 22:18), commonly designated as wine. Some evangelical churches utilize non-fermented grape juice in place of alcoholic wine. It is one of the two universally recognized sacraments of the Christian church, along with water baptism. The name “Lord” used as an adjective emphasizes that the meal is given or instituted by Jesus and reflects a communion with him in participation (1 Cor 10:16-17). The word “supper” demonstrates that it was initially presented in the context of the Passover meal.59 Lord’s Table - A name often used as a synonymous title for the Lord’s Supper taken from Paul in 1 Corinthians 10:21. In this passage, Paul seems to be transferring the language of sitting at a pagan cultic table to the Christian sitting at Jesus’ table.60 In pagan meals, there is a fellowship in honor of demons, whereas in the Christian meal, believers are bound to one another through the death of the Lord.61 57 Acta Justini (recension A) 5.5. Litfin, Early Christian Martyr Stories, 69. 58 Brian Gamel, “The Lord’s Supper,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al., (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016), Logos. 59 Sam K. Williams and Mark Allan Powell, “Lord’s Supper,” in The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised and Updated), ed. Mark Allan Powell (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2011), 567, Logos. 60 Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, Revised Edition, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2014), 598. 61 Ibid., 521-522. 18 Ordinance - A word used to describe and classify the Lord’s Supper that emphasizes it as a rite instituted and commanded by Jesus (Matt 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:15-20). The word “ordinance” stresses obedience in doing what Christ explicitly commanded.62 Sacrament - A word used to describe and classify the Lord’s Supper. The term comes from the Latin sacramentum, meaning “that which binds or obliges a person”63 or “something having a sacred character or function.”64 Christians have generally received Augustine of Hippo’s definition of a sacrament as “the visible form of invisible grace”65 or sacrum signum, “a sacred sign.”66 The word originally was used in the Roman courts, where litigants were required to give a prescribed monetary pledge that would be returned to the case winner. It also was used in a military context as an oath sworn by soldiers.67 A sacrament can be defined as a holy (sacred) sign or pledge (seal), visibly showing the union between the sign and the thing signified.68 Sacrament was first used in Christian terminology by Tertullian, who lived c. 160 – c. 220 AD.69 Protestant churches only regard baptism and the Lord’s Supper as sacraments, while the Roman Catholic Church adheres to seven sacraments.70 62 Claude L. Howe Jr., “Ordinances,” in Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, ed. Chad Brand et al. (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1227, Logos. 63 D. P. Simpson, s.v. “Sacramentum,” Cassell’s Latin Dictionary (New York: NY: Mifflin Houghton Harcourt Publishing Company, 1968), 529. 64 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Sacrament,” accessed January 30, 2024, https://www.oed.com/dictionary/24605396. 65 Augustine, De catechizandis rudibus 26:50, quoted in Eugene R. Schlesinger, “Sacraments” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016), Logos. 66 Augustine, De civitate Dei 10.5, quoted in Robert L. Reymond, A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith (Nashville, TN, Thomas Nelson, 1998), 918. 67 Michael Horton, The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 764. 68 Reymond, A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith, 917. 69 Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult,” 1816. 70 The Roman Catholic Church affirms confirmation, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and matrimony as sacraments, along with baptism and the Lord’s Supper. 19 Transubstantiation - A Roman Catholic doctrine that teaches that Christ’s real, corporeal, and personal presence is found in the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper alongside his soul and divinity.71 This doctrine emphasizes the change of substance of the elements of bread and wine during the Lord’s Supper into the literal body and blood of Christ. It denies the presence of bread and wine after a priest has consecrated it in the mass. This teaching was articulated by the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent as “a unique change of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood, while only the appearance of bread and wine remains.”72 Most protestant churches reject this doctrine. The First Apology of Justin - The first major work of Justin Martyr, written around A.D. 155,73 centers on what the name “Christian” really means and Christians’ relationship with the Roman Empire and paganism.74 Justin emphasized that Christianity was not entirely at odds with pagan learning but completed the intellectual journey that Greek philosophy had only begun.75 What the ancient writers knew about the Logos, Christians know entirely in the incarnation of Jesus.76 He argues that pagan gods are demons and that their stories corrupt the one true story as found in Scripture.77 During the second century, Christians were being slandered by their neighbors. Often, their services of worship were falsely charged as being secret gatherings for sexual immorality, 71 Reinhard Hutter, Aquinas on Transubstantiation: The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2019). 2, ProQuest. 72 Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, 2:697, ed. Norman P. Tanner (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1990), quoted in Brett Salked, Transubstantiation: Theology, History, and Christian Unity (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2019), 17, ProQuest. 73 Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers, 60. 74 González, A History of Christian Thought, 103. 75 Litfin, Getting to Know the Church Fathers, 66. 76 González, The Westminster Dictionary of Theologians, 201. 77 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 54.1-58.3. 20 incest, cannibalism, and even child murder.78 Justin writes to vindicate the church against these false accusations, win tolerance in the culture, and lead the reader to the Christian faith.79 This helps explain why Justin records a theological explanation of baptism (chapter 65), the Lord’s Supper (chapter 66), and a description of the weekly worship of Christians (chapter 67). The book was addressed to all the people of Rome, the Roman Senate, the emperor, and his two sons, who were both philosophers,80 a method of address used by Hellenistic Jewish writers before Justin to ensure their works received a sympathetic hearing by the public for whom they were designed.81 It contains 68 chapters in total. The Second Apology of Justin - This book was written as a response to anti-Christian discrimination concerning a formerly immoral woman who became a Christian.82 This woman wanted to divorce her husband due to his shameful lifestyle. This led to the unjust imprisonment of the woman’s “teacher of Christian doctrines,”83 Ptolemy, also translated “Ptolemaeus” (Πτολεµαον), who may have served as her pastor. Justin states this man was “led away,”84 implying his martyrdom.85 This work is generally addressed to the Romans.86 It has been suggested that this book comprises discarded pieces of Justin’s First Apology and was never 78 St. Justin Martyr and Leslie William Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, ed. Walter J. Burghardt et al., vol. 56, Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1997), 1, Logos. 79 Ibid., 2. 80 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 1.1. 81 Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life And Thought, 15. 82 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 2.1-20. 83 Ibid., 2.11-15. 84 Ibid., 2.15. 85 Litfin, Getting To Know The Church Fathers, 61. 86 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 1.1. 21 intended to be a stand-alone work.87 Others see it as an appendix to the First Apology.88 It contains 15 chapters in total. Limitations This researcher recognized four perceived limitations to this research project. The first limitation is that consistent, full-time weekly attendance among the participants cannot be guaranteed. A second limitation is that it cannot be assured that the participants will take the Lord’s Supper weekly in the worship service and reflect upon it. A third limitation is that the class content will be limited to six significant themes concerning the Lord’s Table and will not be able to cover every major issue in communion. A fourth limitation is that the researcher will not be able to control the participants’ level of biblical and historical knowledge related to communion before the beginning of the study. Delimitations This research project recognizes five delimitations. The first delimitation is that the research will not include the theology of the Eastern Orthodox Church concerning the Lord’s Supper. While there is overlap in the ante-Nicene church fathers concerning communion with both Protestants, Roman Catholics, and Othodoxy, there will not be a dedicated emphasis on the Orthodox approach to the table. A second delimitation is that the sampling of this class will be limited to those who attend or are members of Klondike Church. The third delimitation is the necessity that each participant be a professing and baptized Christian. A fourth delimitation is that the class will only be open to attendees ages eighteen and older. The desire is for a wide 87 Litfin, Getting To Know The Church Fathers, 60. 88 González, The Westminster Dictionary of Theologians, 200. 22 range of ages and representation from the church to help encounter different perspectives and questions that need to be answered concerning communion. However, no exclusions will be permitted for participation based on race or gender. The fifth delimitation is that the classes will only be held from 6:30 p.m. to 7:30 p.m. on successive Wednesday nights until the course concludes in six weeks. Thesis Statement Holy Scripture provides explicit theological understanding and directives for the church to participate in the Lord’s Supper. Those God-breathed words have been understood in various ways historically, and the challenges of the contemporary world have often influenced their application and practice. Jesus commanded His followers, in making disciples, to teach them to keep all He commanded them (Matt 28:19), including the communion meal He instituted. To fulfill the command of Jesus, the follower of Christ must correctly understand and participate in the Lord’s Table. Justin Martyr gives the earliest second-century description of how a typical church service was ordered and details the theology and practice of communion in his First Apology. These historical descriptions should always be considered in light of Scripture, which has the highest authority. As Justin Martyr was only a few generations removed from the giving of the New Testament, his description of the practice of the Lord’s Supper in the early church should be given significant weight as it aligns with the text of Scripture and helps develop orthodox comprehension and practice. Unfortunately, too many influences and assumptions from local church tradition often determine a worshiper’s participation in communion. If a church is to be biblically faithful in observing communion, it must base all it does on the clear teachings of 23 Scripture. If Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Lord’s Supper is purposefully studied in light of Scripture, then Klondike Church’s participation will be biblically faithful. 24 CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Literature Review The Lord’s Supper is considered an ordinance1 or sacrament2 of the church, instituted by Jesus himself (Matt 26:29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:15-20; 1 Cor 11:23-26), that holds a prominent place in the worship of God’s people. The Lord’s Supper received its name from Paul’s designation in 1 Corinthians 11:20. The term, however, is also expressed as the Eucharist, Holy Communion, or the Mass across various branches of the Christian faith.3 The Lord’s Supper is vitally important theologically as it looks backward to Old Testament history and forward to events that follow it in the life of Jesus and his church.4 1 See The London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689, chapter 28, paragraph 1; The Philadelphia Confession of Faith of 1742, chapters 29 and 32; The New Hampshire Confession of Faith of 1853, chapters 13 and 14; and The Baptist Faith and Message 2000, chapters 6 and 7. 2 See The Augsburg Confession of 1530, articles 10 and 13; The Belgic Confession of 1561, articles 33 and 35; The Heidelburg Catechism of 1563, Questions 68 and 75-82; The Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of 1571, articles 25 and 28; The Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647, chapters 27 and 29; and An Orthodox Catechism: Being the Sum of Christian Religion, Contained in the Law and Gospel of 1680, Questions 65-68. 3 Andrew B. McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship: Early Church Practices in Social, Historical, and Theological Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016), 19, ProQuest. It is also known as the Sacrament of the Altar in Lutheran theology. 4 Guy Prentiss Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal of the New Covenant (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2019), 77, 83. ProQuest. Waters writes that at the Lord’s Supper, Jesus is “pledging to bring each of his children home to the messianic banquet where we shall enjoy in full what we now enjoy in part—life and blessing from, with, and in our Savior.” Another example of the future implications of the Lord’s Supper is found in the Ante-Nicene Father Irenaeus of Lyons, who writes, “Grain also, receiving the Word of God, becomes the Eucharist, which is the body and blood of Christ. So also our bodies, nourished by it but deposited in the earth and suffering decomposition there, shall rise at their appointed time. The Word of God will grant them resurrection to the glory of God the Father, who freely gives to this mortal immortality, and to this corruptible incorruption [1 Cor 15:53].” Irenaeus, Adversus haereses, 5.2.3, James R. Payton Jr., Irenaeus on the Christian Faith (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 2012), 158, ProQuest. 25 An ordinance can be defined as an authoritative decree or command.5 Since the Lord’s Supper is an order given by Jesus to the church, obedience is emphasized in the categorization of ordinance by doing what Jesus explicitly directs.6 A sacrament, which is a visible, holy sign and seal instituted by God himself,7 is a term that speaks of its sacred character and the public pledge of a covenant between God and man.8 To categorize the Lord’s Supper as a sacrament emphasizes the sacred nature of the communion meal and the spiritual union found in this act of worship. The Lord’s Table has such importance that many congregations would not recognize another church body as part of the true church without its proper observance.9 The Lord’s Table is an essential part of the worship of an authentic local church. 5 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Ordinance,” accessed September 27, 2023, https://www.oed.com/dictionary/ordinance_n?tab=meaning_and_use#33297937. 6 Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, s.v., “Ordinances” (Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers, 2003), 1227, Logos. Chad Van Dixhoorn adds that the Lord’s Supper is often called a dominical sacrament since it was given directly by himself and Jesus is the Master of the sacrament. Chad Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion with God in Union with Christ,” in Theology for Ministry: How Doctrine Affects Pastoral Life and Practice, eds. William R. Edwards, John C.A. Ferguson, and Chad Van Dixhoorn (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 2022), 451. 7 The Heidelburg Catechism of 1563, question 66. Michael Horton writes that “sacrament derives originally from the Roman courts, where litigants were required to give a prescribed monetary pledge that the winner of the case would receive back. It also came to be used in a military context, as an oath sworn by soldiers.” Michael Horton, The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 764. 8 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Sacrament,” accessed September 27, 2023, https://www.oed.com/dictionary/sacrament_n?tab=meaning_and_use#24605396. 9 Michael A. G. Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands: Recovering Sacrament in the Baptist Tradition. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2022), 4, 121, Logos. Haykin quotes Particular Baptist Hercules Collins, who asserted, “[I]f God have a Church in all Ages, he must have Ordinances there, because no Church of Christ can be constituted without them.” Hercules Collins, Believers-Baptism from Heaven, and of Divine Institution. Infants-Baptism from Earth, and Human Invention (London, England: 1691), 61. Particular Baptist Benjamin Keach writes, “A church of Christ according to gospel institution is a congregation of godly Christians who . . . ordinarily meet together in one place for the public service and worship of God—among whom the Word of God and sacraments are duly administered according to Christ’s institution.” Benjamin Keach, The Glory of a True Church (1697: repr., Pensacola, Fl: Chapel Library, 2018), 4. 26 The ante-Nicene church father, Justin Martyr, gives the first post-biblical description of a Christian worship service10 and the most precise description of second-century worship in his book, First Apology.11 This description details the most extended depiction of an early Christian meal.12 L.W. Barnard suggests that the Lord’s Supper was the central act of Christian Sunday worship for Justin.13 Justin states that the church of the second century called this meal Εὐχαριστία,14 or the Eucharist.15 This word can indicate an attitude of gratitude toward a benefactor16 and can be defined as thankfulness.17 Justin uses this word both as a noun and in verbal forms describing the taking of the Lord’s Supper. Eucharist, as a title for the communion meal, derives from the prayer of thanksgiving Jesus made for the bread (Luke 22:19; Acts 27:35; 1 Cor 11:24).18 It was after the Apostolic era that the term broadened in meaning from the prayer offered to speak of the event of communion.19 Jerker Blomqvist and Karin Blomqvist explain 10 Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, Fifth Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2020), 74, ProQuest. 11 Michael J. Kruger, Christianity at the Crossroads: How the Second Century Shaped the Future of the Church (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2018), 99. 12 Benedikt Eckhardt, “Wine, Water and the Missing Symposium in Justin’s First Apology.” Vigiliae Christianae, no. 74 (2020): 471. 13 L.W. Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life And Thought (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 145. 14 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.1. In 41.3 of Justin’s Dialogus cum Tryphone, he speaks of “the bread of the Eucharist and the chalice of the Eucharist.” See also 41.1, 70.4, 117.1. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, vol. 3, Selections From The Fathers of The Church, trans. Thomas P. Falls, ed. Thomas P. Halton and Michael Slusser (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2003), 63, ProQuest. 15 Justin also uses εὐχαριστία and εὐχαριστέω in chapters 65-67 to refer to the act of thanksgiving that was a part of the Lord’s Supper meal. 16 Frederick William Danker, s.v. “εὐχᾰριστία,” The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2009), 156. 17 H.G. Liddell, s.v. “εὐχᾰριστία,” A Lexicon: Abridged from Lidell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon (Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1996), 335, Logos. 18 John W. Taylor, The Lord’s Dinner: Restoring The Common Meal To The Center of the Churches’ Common Life (paper presented at the Gateway Seminary Academic Convocation, Ontario, CA, March 2023), 11. 19 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 33. 27 that Justin’s usage of the term demonstrates that by the second century, Eucharist had become the name for the whole ritual of which thanksgiving was a part.20 While Paul utilized the name Lord’s Supper in 1 Corinthians 11:20, Eucharist became the dominant name for the meal in the church until the fourth century, when the name Lord’s Supper reappeared.21 Blomqvist and Blomqvist note that the church has used other terms for the Eucharist, which denote the whole ritual of the Lord’s Supper, including εὐλογία, ἀγάπη, and κοινωνία.22 In the First Apology, Justin describes the Eucharist given to new converts in chapter 65, the theology of the Eucharist in chapter 66, and the Eucharist as the regular worship of the church community on Sunday in chapter 67.23 The Background to the Eucharist in Justin’s First Apology The historical context of Justin’s writing is found in the introduction to the work. He addresses the First Apology to “Emperor Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Caesar.”24 Antoninus reigned from A.D. 138 to 161 after the death of Hadrian, giving a window for the date of writing.25 Justin comments in First Apology 46.1 that “we say that Christ was born 20 Jerker Blomqvist and Karin Blomqvist, “Eucharist Terminology in Early Christian Literature Philological and Semantic Aspects,” in The Eucharist: It’s Origin And Context – Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity Volumes 1-3, ed. David Hellom and Dieter Sanger (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 400, ProQuest. 21 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 34. 22 Jerker Blomqvist and Karin Blomqvist, “Eucharist Terminology in Early Christian Literature,” 398. 23 Hans Dieter Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult” in The Eucharist: It’s Origin And Context – Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity Volumes 1-3, eds. David Hellom and Dieter Sanger (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 1812, ProQuest. 24 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 1.1. St. Justin Martyr and Leslie William Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, eds. Walter J. Burghardt et al., vol. 56, Ancient Christian Writers (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1997), 66, Logos. 25 Justin Martyr, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr: Apologies, eds. and trans. Denis Minns and Paul Parvis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 36, ProQuest. 28 a hundred and fifty years ago.”26 Some take this number as a round figure,27 while others understand this so precise that no more than “three or four years above or below this figure should be allowed,” dating the work between A.D. 147 to 154.28 Another historical detail in the work helps to date it more precisely. Justin mentions, “One of our numbers recently presented to Felix, the Prefect in Alexandria, a petition.”29 A Greek papyrus in the British Museum has been discovered that shows Felix’s name on documents dated A.D. 150-151, and it is believed he held office from c. A.D. 150-154.30 This has led to another proposed dating of A.D. 151-155.31 Justin’s chief reason for writing the First Apology was to defend Christians from excessive practices the Roman government had imposed against them, including unmerited prosecution of Christians and even capital punishment of those who would not abandon their commitment to Christ.32 Justin’s description of the practices of the church in chapters 65-67 seems to be written to correct specific slanders that had spread against the Christians of his day, misrepresenting the faith. He describes them in 10.6 as “many false and godless accusations.”33 Justin seeks to emphasize the innocence of Christian worship and to demonstrate there are no horrors committed in Christian practice.34 Two of the accusations that were brought against the 26Justin Martyr, Apologia i 46.1. 27 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 12. 28 Minns and Parvis, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, 44. 29 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 26.2. 30 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 12. 31 Ibid. 32 Minns and Parvis, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, 44-45. Justin concludes the letter by pleading, “Do not decree death against those who have done no wrong, as against enemies.” Justin Martyr, Apologia i 68.1. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 63. Justin expresses this in Apologia i 2.4; 7.3-4; 45.6; 57.3; 68.8-10. See also Apologia ii 12.1, 4. 33Justin Martyr, Apologia i 10.6. Justin writes in 23.3, “[T]hey have caused to be fabricated the scandalous reports against us and impious deeds.” Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 36. These are summarized by Justin in Dialogus cum Tryphone 10.1. 34 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 19. 29 church were incest and immorality. Since Christians spoke of each other as brothers and sisters, talked of loving each other, had a greeting kiss, and held their meetings in secret, “gossiping lips and dirty minds” accused the church of these immoralities.35 It seems the new Christian movement was being confused with the Greco-Roman mystery cults, which also met in secret and at night.36 This explains why Justin mentions the cult of Mithras and contrasts their initiation practice with the Lord’s Supper.37 Justin clears the church from these charges by describing what really happened in the meetings of Christians during this time. Two more slanderous charges that had spread against the church were disloyalty to Rome and atheism due to their not sacrificing to the Roman gods, including the emperor.38 Justin dispels these myths by writing about the church’s prayers in worship for all people everywhere, and their specific prayer that they would be good citizens.39 Then Justin records how the church generously uses its resources to care for others in need, hardly making them a threat to their neighbors or the state.40 A final assault against the church of Justin’s day was that of cannibalism. The realistic language Christians used to speak about feeding on Christ in the Lord’s Supper led to this misunderstanding.41 This charge is alluded to in a letter c. A.D. 111-113 from the governor of 35 Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, Revised edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003), 40, ProQuest. See Apologia i 26.7-27.5; 29.1-3; Apologia ii 12.5. 36 Nijay Gupta, Strange Religion: How the First Christians Were Weird, Dangerous, and Compelling (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2024), 149, ProQuest. Gupta lists the dominant mystery cults as the Eleusinian, Samothracian, Bacchic/Dionysiac, Isis, and the Cult of Mithras. 37 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.4. 38 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 3. Justin clarifies that the real reason for this accusation is that “we do not worship the same gods as you do” and Christians do not bring offerings and sacrifices to them. Justin Martyr, Apologia i 24.2. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 36. See also Apologia i 17.3. 39 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 65.1. 40 Ibid., 67.6. 41 Green, Evangelism in the Early Church, 40. See Justin Martyr, Apologia i 26.7; Apologia ii 12.2, 5. 30 Bithynia, Pliny the Younger, written to Emperor Trajan. In this letter, he documents his first encounter with Christians and seeks guidance concerning how others should deal with them. He states that the food Christians partake of is “ordinary and innocent,” implying accusations to the contrary.42 Justin seems to answer this charge in 27.1, refuting the slander that Christians were partaking in the practice of infant exposure and even eating the corpses of children.43 In chapters 65-67, he details why the language of flesh and blood is used in the Eucharist and what really was happening in the church meetings, absolving Christians of such criminal and immoral behavior. What follows is an interlinear translation of chapters 65-67, followed by an original translation, both by the researcher. The Greek text primarily used was E.J. Goodspeed’s Die ältesten Apologeten from 1915.44 The critical text of the First Apology by Basil L. Gildersleeve from 1877 was also consulted.45 An Interlinear of Chapters 65-67 (the First Apology) Chapter 65: The Baptized Receive the Bread and Cup 65:1: Ἡμεῖς δὲ μετὰ τὸ οὕτως λοῦσαι τὸν πεπεισμένον we but after/next the in this way washed the persuaded/convinced bathed, cleansed, baptized believed HEMEIS DE META TO OUTOS LOUSAI TON PEPEISMENON Pronoun Conjunction Preposition Article Adverb Aorist middle imperative Article Perfect active participle 42 Pliny the Younger, Epistulae 10.96-97. 43 Minns and Parvis, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, 153. 44 E.J. Goodspeed, Die ältesten Apologeten (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1915), 26-77. http://stephanus.tlg.uci.edu/Iris/Cite?0645:001:111513 45 Basil L. Gildersleeve and Justin Martyr, The Apologies of Justin Martyr, To Which Is Appended The Epistle to Diognetus (New York, NY: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1877), Logos. 31 καὶ συγκατατεθειμένον ἐπὶ τοὺς λεγομένους ἀδελφοὺς ἄγομεν, and deposit together on the told/called brothers bring/lead agree with/consent to/agreeing entirely escort KAI SUGKATATETHEIMENON EPI TOUS LEGOMENOUS ADELPHOUS AGOMEN Conjunction Perfect passive participle Preposition Article Present middle participle Noun Present active indicative ἔνθα συνηγμένοι εἰσί, κοινὰς εὐχὰς ποιησόμενοι ὑπέρ τε there gathered/assembled be common prayers make/do for/on behalf of and ENTHA SUNEGMENOI EISI KOINAS EUCHAS POIESOMENOI HUPER TE Adverb Perfect Passive Participle Pres/Act/Ind Adjective Noun Future Middle Participle Preposition Particle ἑαυτῶν καὶ τοῦ φωτισθέντος καὶ ἄλλων πανταχοῦ πάντων εὐτόνως, oneself and the enlightened/illuminated and another everywhere all earnest/vigorous sincere/express intense emotion HEAUTON KAI TOU PHOTISTHENTOS KAI ALLON PANTACHOU PANTON EUTONOS Pronoun Conj Article Aorist passive participle Conj Pronoun pl Adverb Pronoun Adverb ὅπως καταξιωθῶμεν τὰ ἀληθῆ μαθόντες καὶ δι’ ἔργων ἀγαθοὶ in order/so that to consider someone the truth learn and by works good worthy/deemed fit deeds HOTOS KATAZIOTHOMEN TA ALETHE MATHONTES KAI DI ERGON AGATHOI Conjunction Aorist Subj Passive Article Adjective Aorist active participle Conj Prep Noun Adjective 32 πολιτευταὶ καὶ φύλακες τῶν ἐντεταλμένων εὑρεθῆναι, statesmen and guardians/observers/protectors the commands/order find in/obtain a a Roman calvary officer (Decurion); the law/what is commanded state/condition/obtain one who behaves/conducts himself as a good citizen a follower/devotee of Christ POLITEUTAI KAI PHULAKES TON ENTETALENON EURETHENAI Noun Conjunction Noun Article Perfect middle participle plural Aorist passive infinitive ὅπως τὴν αἰώνιον σωτηρίαν σωθῶμεν. in order/so that the Eternal Salvation/Deliverance Save/Deliver HOTOS TON AIONION SOTERIAN SOTHOMEN Conjunction Article Adjective Noun Aorist Passive Subjunctive 1st plural 65:2: ἀλλήλους φιλήματι ἀσπαζόμεθα παυσάμενοι τῶν εὐχῶν. one another kiss greet/welcome readily cease/concluding the prayers ALLELOUS PHILEMATI HASPAZOMETHA PAUSAMENOI TON EUCHON Pronoun Noun Present passive participle Aorist middle participle Article Noun plural 65:3: ἔπειτα προσφέρεται τῷ προεστῶτι τῶν ἀδελφῶν then offer/bring to the exhibit publicly the brothers put before one/manifest/exercise leadership/he who presides/ruler EPEITA PROSPHERETAI TO PROESTOTI TON ADELPHON Adverb Present Passive Indicative Article Perfect active participle Article Noun plural ἄρτος καὶ ποτήριον ὕδατος καὶ κράματος, καὶ οὗτος bread/loaf and cup/chalice water and mixed wine and this ARTOS KAI POTERION HUDATOS KAI KRAMATOS KAI OUTOS Noun Conjunction Noun Noun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Pronoun 33 λαβὼν αἶνον καὶ δόξαν τῷ πατρὶ τῶν ὅλων διὰ sends up praise and glory the Father the whole/all through/by receives/takes/offers LABON AINON KAI DOXAN TO PATRI TON HOLON DIA Aorist active participle Noun Conjunction Noun Article Noun Article Adjective Preposition τοῦ ὀνόματος τοῦ υἱοῦ καὶ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου the name/person the Son and the Spirit the holy TOU ONOMATOS TO UIOU KAI TOU PNEMATOS TOU HAGIOU Article Noun Article Noun Conjunction Article Noun Article Adjective ἀναπέμπει καὶ εὐχαριστίαν ὑπὲρ τοῦ κατηξιῶσθαι send back/over and thanksgiving/thankfulness for/on behalf of the deemed worthy expressing gratitude held in honor; worthy of privilege/recognition ANAPEMPEI KAI EUCHARISTIAN HUPER TOU KATEZIOSTHAI Present active indicative Conjuction Noun Prep Article Perfect Infinitive Middle/pass τούτων παρ’ αὐτοῦ ἐπὶ πολὺ ποιεῖται· οὗ συντελέσαντος this from/with/by He on many/much/great to do/make the to bring to an end/complete; celebrate/contribute; accomplish/execute TOUTON PAR AUTOU EPI POLU POIEITAI OU SUNTELESANTOS Pronoun Preposition Pronoun Preposition Adjective Present active passive Article Aorist active participle τὰς εὐχὰς καὶ τὴν εὐχαριστίαν πᾶς ὁ παρὼν λαὸς the prayers and the thanksgiving/thankfulness all the be present/come people TAS EUCHAS KAI TON EUCHARISTIAN PAS HO PARON LAOS Article Noun Conjunction Article Noun Adjective Article Present active participle Noun 34 ἐπευφημεῖ λέγων· Ἀμήν. shout/applaud/glorify say/ tell amen/strong affirmation of what is declared/so be it assent/sing praise EPEUPHEMEI LEGON AMEN Present indicative active Present active participle Particle/Exclamation 65:4: τὸ δὲ Ἀμὴν τῇ Ἑβραΐδι φωνῇ τὸ γένοιτο. the but/and/now Amen the Hebrew sound/voice the be/become/take place word come to pass TO DE AMEN TE EBRAIDI PHOEN TO GENOITO Article Conjunction Particle Article Adjective Noun Article Aorist middle opative σημαίνει signifies/indicates/means SEMAINEI Present active indicative 65:5: εὐχαριστήσαντος δὲ τοῦ προεστῶτος καὶ ἐπευφημήσαντος has given thanks but/and/now the leader/ruler and assent/applaud manager/he who presides sing praise/approve EUCHARISTESANTOS DE TOU PROESTOTOS KAI EPEUPHEMESANTOS Aorist Active Participle Conjunction Article Perfect active participle Conjunction Aorist active participle παντὸς τοῦ λαοῦ οἱ καλούμενοι παρ’ ἡμῖν διάκονοι διδόασιν all/every the people the call/name with/by us servants/ministers give deacons PANTOS TOU LAOU OI KALOUMENOI PAR HEMIN DIAKONOI DIDOASIN Adjective Article Noun Article Present passive participle Preposition Pronoun (1st plural) Noun (plural) Present active indicative 35 ἑκάστῳ τῶν παρόντων μεταλαβεῖν ἀπὸ τοῦ εὐχαριστηθέντος each/every the present/that have come have a share from the thanksgiving/apprecitation partake/participate in/receive gratitude/Eucharistized EKASTO TON PARONTON METALBEIN APO TOU EUCHARISTETHENTOS Adjective Article Present Active Participle Aorist active infinitive Preposition Article Aorist passive participle ἄρτου καὶ οἴνου καὶ ὕδατος καὶ οὐ παροῦσιν. bread/loaf and wine and water and no be present/have come (absentees) HARTOU KAI OINOU KAI HUDATOS KAI OU PAROUSIN Noun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Adverb Present active participle ἀποφέρουσι carry away/remove APOPHEROUSI Present active participle Chapter 66: The Food Called Eucharist 66:1: Καὶ ἡ τροφὴ αὕτη καλεῖται παρ’ ἡμῖν εὐχαριστία, and the food/provisions this call/summon with/by we thanksgiving/thankfulness meal Eucharist KAI HE TROPHE AUTE KALEITAI PAR HUMIN EUCHARISTIA Conjunction Article Noun Pronoun Present passive indicative Preposition Pronoun Noun ἧς οὐδενὶ ἄλλῳ μετασχεῖν ἐξόν ἐστιν ἢ τῷ πιστεύοντι which no one other/another share/participate permitted to be or the believing/trusting partake HES OUDENI ALLO METASCHEIN EZON ESTIN HE TO PISTEUONTI Pronoun Adjective Adjective Aorist active infinitive Present active part Present act ind Conj Art Present active participle 36 ἀληθῆ εἶναι τὰ δεδιδαγμένα ὑφ’ ἡμῶν, καὶ λουσαμένῳ τὸ true to be the teachings by we and washed/bathed the explanations cleansed/baptized ALETHE EINAI TA DEDIDAGMENA HUPH HEMON KAI LOUSAMENO TO Adjective Present active infinitive Article Perfect middle participle Preposition Pronoun Conjunction Aorist middle participle Article ὑπὲρ ἀφέσεως ἁμαρτιῶν καὶ εἰς ἀναγέννησιν λουτρόν, καὶ for pardon/forgiveness sins and for/into regeneration washing/bath and remission/cleansing rebirth baptism HUPER APHESEOS HAMARTION KAI EIS ANAGENNESIN LOUTRON KAI Preposition Noun Noun Conjunction Preposition Noun Noun Conjunction οὕτως βιοῦντι ὡς ὁ Χριστὸς παρέδωκεν. so/in this way spend ones life/lives like the Anointed/Messiah handed over regulates ones life/lives instructed OUTOS BIOUNTI HOS HO CHRISTOS PARDEOKEN Adverb Present active participle Conjunction Article Noun Aorist active indicative 66:2: οὐ γὰρ ὡς κοινὸν ἄρτον οὐδὲ κοινὸν πόμα ταῦτα Not for like common/ordinary bread/loaf nor common/ordinary drink these OU GAR HOS KOINON HARTON OUDE KOINON POMA TAUTA Adverb Conjunction Conjunction Adjective Noun Conjunction Adjective Noun Pronoun λαμβάνομεν· ἀλλ’ ὃν τρόπον διὰ λόγου θεοῦ σαρκοποιηθεὶς receive/partake but which manner/way through word God make flesh/incarnate LAMBANOMEN ALL HON TROPON DIA LOGOU THEOU SARKOPOIETHEIS Present active indicative Conjunction Pronoun Preposition Noun Noun Aorist Passive Participle 37 Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς ὁ σωτὴρ ἡμῶν καὶ σάρκα καὶ αἷμα ὑπὲρ Jesus Christ/Messiah the Savior our and flesh and blood for IESOUS KRISTOS HO SOTER HEMON KAI SARPKA KAI AIMA HUPER Noun Noun Article Noun Pronoun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Noun Preposition σωτηρίας ἡμῶν ἔσχεν, οὕτως καὶ τὴν δι’ εὐχῆς λόγου salvation/deliverance we have/took upon him in this way and the through/by prayer word SOTERIAS HEMON ESCHEN OUTOS KAI TEN DI EUCHES LOGOU Noun Pronoun Aorist active indicative Adverb Conjunction Article Prep Noun Noun τοῦ παρ’ αὐτοῦ εὐχαριστηθεῖσαν τροφήν, ἐξ ἧς αἷμα καὶ the from/by his express gratitude/return thanks food/meal of be blood and Eucharistized/made the Eucharist TOU PAR AUTOU EUCHARISTETHEISAN TROPHEN EZ HES AIMA KAI Article Preposition Pronoun Aorist passive participle Noun Prep Imperfect act ind Noun Conj σάρκες κατὰ μεταβολὴν τρέφονται ἡμῶν, ἐκείνου τοῦ flesh according to change/transition/assimilation feed/nourish we/our that one the change undergone/metabolic process/transformation/transmutation SARKES KATA METABOLEN TREPHONTAI HEMON EKEINOU TOU Noun Preposition Noun Present passive indicative Pronoun Pronoun Article σαρκοποιηθέντος Ἰησοῦ καὶ σάρκα καὶ αἷμα ἐδιδάχθημεν εἶναι. made flesh/become incarnate Jesus and flesh and blood teach/instruct to be SARKOPOIETHENTOS IESOU KAI SARKA KAI AIMA EDIDACHTHEMEN EINAI Aorist passive participle Noun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Noun Aorist passive indicative Present active infinitive 38 66:3: οἱ γὰρ ἀπόστολοι ἐν τοῖς γενομένοις ὑπ’ αὐτῶν the for/because apostles in the become/made/take place by they produced OI GAR APOSTOLOI EN TOIS GENOMENOIS HUP AUTON Article Conjunction Noun Preposition Article Aorist middle participle Preposition Pronoun ἀπομνημονεύμασιν, ἃ καλεῖται εὐαγγέλια, οὕτως παρέδωκαν memoirs/recorded sayings which called/named Gospels so/in order handed down recollections good news transmitted/delivered APOMENMONEUMASIN HA KALEITAI EUNGELIA OUTOS PAREDOKAN Noun Pronoun Present passive indicative Noun Adverb Aorist active indicative ἐντετάλθαι αὐτοῖς· τὸν Ἰησοῦν λαβόντα ἄρτον εὐχαριστήσαντα · commanded/ordered them the Jesus took hold of loaf/bread expressed gratitude grasped/received gave thanks/Eucharistizing ENTETALTHAI AUTOIS TON IESOUN LABONTA ARTON EUCHARISTESANTA Present middle infinitive Pronoun Article Noun Aorist active participle Noun Aorist active participle εἰπεῖν Τοῦτο ποιεῖτε εἰς τὴν ἀνάμνησίν μου, τοῦτ’ ἐστι τὸ said this/it do in for remembrance me this to be/is the reminder/recollection/call to mind/memorial EIPEIN TOUTO POIEITE EIS TEN ANAMENSIN MOU TOUT ESTI TO Aorist active infinitive Pronoun Present active indicative Prep Article Noun Pronoun Pronoun Present act ind Article σῶμά μου αὶ τὸ Ποτήριον ὁμοίως λαβόντα καὶ εὐχαριστήσαντα body my and the cup likewise/in the same way took and gave thanks/gratitude Eucharistizing SOMA MOU KAI TO POTERION HOMOIOS LABONTA KAI EUCHARISTESANTA Noun Pronoun Conj Article Noun Adverb Aorist active participle Conj Aorist active participle 39 εἰπεῖν Τοῦτό ἐστιτὸ τὸ αἷμά μου· καὶ μόνοις αὐτοῖς said/told this to be/is the blood my and only/alone he EIPEIN TOUTO ESTITO TO AIMA MOU KAI MONOIS AUTOIS Aorist active infinitve Pronoun Present active indic Article Noun Pronoun Conjunction Adjective Pronoun μεταδοῦναι shared/gave METADOUNAI Aorist active infinitive 66:4: ὅπερ καὶ ἐν τοῖς τοῦ Μίθρα μυστηρίοις παρέδωκαν which indeed and in the the Mithras mysteries/sacred rites hand over/delivered sun-god of the Persians ordered/handed down HOTER KAI EN TOIS TOU MITHRA MUSTEPIOIS PAREDOKAN Pronoun Conjunction Prep Article Article Noun Noun Aorist active indicative γίνεσθαι μιμησάμενοιοἱ οἱ πονηροὶ δαίμονες· ὅτι γὰρ ἄρτος to be/performed imitated the evil/wicked demons/evil spirits that for bread/loaf GINESTHAI MIMESAMENOIOI OI PONEPOI DAIMONES HOTI GAR ARTOS Present passive infinitive Aorist middle participle Article Adjective Noun Conjunction Conj Noun καὶ ποτήριον ὕδατος τίθεται ἐν ταῖς τοῦ μυουμένου and cup water to put/place in the the initiation/instruction/teaching KAI POTERION HUDATOS TITHETAI EN TAIS TOU MUOUMENOU Conjunction Noun Noun Present passive indicative Prep Article Article Present passive participle 40 τελεταῖς μετ’ ἐπιλόγων τινῶν, ἢ ἐπίστασθε ἢ μαθεῖν . initiation into with/after incantations their or know/understand or learn/teach mysteries/rites/office words said over believe/assume understand secret rites TELETAI MET EPILOGON TINON E EPISTASTHE E MATHEIN Noun Prep Noun Preposition Conj Present passive indic Conj Aorist active infinitive δύνασθε can/have capability/able DUNASTHE Present passive ind Chapter 67: On the Day Called Sunday 67:1: Ἡμεῖς δὲ μετὰ ταῦτα λοιπὸν ἀεὶ τούτων ἀλλήλους we but/now with/after these remain/for the rest always these one another HEMEIS DE META TAUTA LOIPON AEI TOUTON ALLELOUS Pronoun Conjunction Preposition Pronoun Pl Adjective Adverb Pronoun Pl Pronoun ἀναμιμνήσκομεν · καὶ οἱ ἔχοντες τοῖς λειπομένοις πᾶσιν remind someone/recall and the have the lack/fall short all/every recall to mind the rich/wealthy be deficient/leave behind/poor HANAMIMNESKOMEN KAI OI ECHONTES TOIS LEIPOMENOIS PASIN Present active indicative Conjunction Article Present active participle Article Present passive participle Pronoun ἐπικουροῦμεν, καὶ σύνεσμεν ἀλλήλοις ἀεί. aid/help/provide for and come together/attend/take part in one another always/constantly EPIKOUROUMEN KAI SUNESMEN ALLELOIS AEI Present active indicative Conjunction Present active indicative Pronoun Adverb 41 67:2: ἐπὶ πᾶσί τε οἷς προσφερόμεθα εὐλογοῦμεν τὸν ποιητὴν On/upon all/every and who bring/present/contribute bless/praise the maker/creator EPI PASI TE OIS PROSPHEROMETHA EULOGOUMEN TON POIETEN Preposition Pronoun Particle Pronoun Present active indicative Present active indicative Article Noun τῶν πάντων διὰ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ καὶ διὰ the all/every by/through the son he Jesus Christ and by/through TON PANTON DIA TOU UIOU AUTOU IESOU KRISTOU KAI DIA Article Pronoun Preposition Article Noun Pronoun Noun Noun Conjunction Preposition πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου. Spirit the holy PNEUMATOS TOU HAGIOU Noun Article Noun 67:3: καὶ τῇ τοῦ ἡλίου λεγομένῃ ἡμέρᾳ πάντων κατὰ and the the sun say/tell/call day all/every according to KAI TE TOU HELIOU LEGOMENE HEMERA PANTON KATA Conjunction Article Article Noun Present passive participle Adjective Pronoun Preposition Πόλεις ἢ ἀγροὺς μενόντων ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ συνέλευσις γίνεται, city/town or field/farm stay/reside on/upon the he come together is/are country district/countryside assemble/meet POLEIS HE AGOUS MENONTON EPI TO AUTO SUNELEUSIS GINETAI Noun Conjunction Noun Present active imperative Prep Article Pronoun Noun Present passive indicative 42 καὶ τὰ ἀπομνημονεύματα τῶν ἀποστόλων ἢ τὰ and the memoirs/recorded sayings/records the apostles or the KAI TA APOMNEMONEUMATA TON APOSTOLON HE TA Conjunction Article Noun Article Noun Conjunction Article Συγγράμματα τῶν προφητῶν ἀναγινώσκεται, μέχρις ἐγχωρεῖ. writings/written work the prophets read aloud until/as far as there is time SUNGRAMMATA TON PROPHETON ANAGINOSKETAI MECHRIS EGCHOPEI Noun Article Noun Present passive indicative Adverb Present passive indicative 67:4: εἶτα παυσαμένου τοῦ ἀναγινώσκοντος ὁ προεστὼς next/then ceased/stopped the reading the leader/ruler/director/president EITA PAUSAMENOU TOU ANAGINOSKONTOS HO PROESTOS Adverb Aorist middle participle Article Present active participle Article Perfect active participle διὰ λόγου τὴν νουθεσίαν καὶ πρόκλησιν τῆς τῶν καλῶν by word the admonition/instruction and invitation/challenge the the good/virtue exhortation DIA LOGOU TEN NOUTHESIAN KAI PROKLESIN TES TON KALON Preposition Noun Article Noun Conjunction Noun Article Article Adjective τούτων μιμήσεως ποιεῖται. this imitation/copy/representation/example make/produce/do TOUTON MIMESEOS POIEITAI Pronoun Noun Present passive indicative 43 67:5: ἔπειτα ἀνιστάμεθα κοινῇ πάντες καὶ εὐχὰς πέμπομεν· then rise up/stand up common/together all and prayers send forth/offer EPEITA ANISTAMETHA KOINE PANTES KAI EUCHAS PEMPOMEN Adverb Present passive indicative Adjective Adjective Conjunction Noun Present active indicative καί, ὡς προέφημεν, παυσαμένων ἡμῶν τῆς εὐχῆς ἄρτος and like/as said before/previously ceased/stopped our the prayers bread KAI HOS PROEPHEMEN PAUSAMENON HEMON TES EUCHES ARTOS Conjunction Conj Imperfect active indicative Aorist middle participle Pronoun Article Noun Noun προσφέρεται καὶ οἶνος καὶ ὕδωρ, καὶ ὁ προεστὼς εὐχὰς offered/presented and wine and water and the leader/ruler/director prays president PROSPHERETAI KAI OINOS KAI HUDOR KAI HO PROESTOS EUCHAS Present passive indicative Conjunction Noun Conjunction Noun Conjunction Article Present active participle Noun ὁμοίως καὶ εὐχαριστίας, ὅση δύναμις αὐτῷ, ἀναπέμπει, καὶ ὁ in the same way and expression of gratitude as many as power him send/offer up and the thanksgiving/grateful/thankfulness as ability is given HOMOIOS KAI EUCHARISTIAS HOSE DUNAMIS AUTO ANAPEMPEI KAI HO Adverb Conjunction Noun Pronoun Noun Pronoun Present active ind Conj Article λαὸς ἐπευφημεῖ λέγων τὸ Ἀμήν, καὶ ἡ διάδοσις καὶ ἡ people assent/shout/applause saying the amen and the distribution and the strong affirmation of what is declared/so be it LAOS EPEUPHEMEI LEGON TO AMEN KAI HE DIADOSIS KAI HE Noun Imperfect active indicative Present active participle Article Particle Conjunction Article Noun Conjunction Article 44 μετάληψις ἀπὸ τῶν εὐχαριστηθέντων ἑκάστῳ γίνεται, καὶ τοῖς participation from the thanksgiving/gratitude each/every become and the partaking Eucharistic METALEPSIS APO TON EUCHARISTETHENTON EKASTO GINETAI KAI TOIS Noun Preposition Article Aorist passive participle Adjective Present passive indicative Conjunction Article οὐ παροῦσι διὰ τῶν διακόνων πέμπεται. no/not present/have come through the servants/deacons sent OU PAROUSI DIA TON DIAKONON PEMPETAI Adverb Present active participle Preposition Article Noun Present passive indicative 67:6: οἱ εὐποροῦντες δὲ καὶ βουλόμενοι κατὰ προαίρεσιν they/those prosper/have plenty but and wish/want/desire according to choice/inclination are well off/wealthy OI EUPOROUNTES DE KAI BOULOMENOI KATA PROAIPESIN Article Present active participle Conjunction Conj Present middle participle Preposition Noun ἕκαστος τὴν ἑαυτοῦ ὃ βούλεται δίδωσι, καὶ τὸ συλλεγόμενον each/every the his/oneself the wish/want/desire give/grant and the gather/collect contribute bring together HEKASTOS TEN EAUTOU HO BOULETAI DIDOSI KAI TO SULLEGOMENON Adjective Article Pronoun Pronoun Present passive indicative Present active ind Conj Article Present passive participle παρὰ τῷ προεστῶτι ἀποτίθεται, καὶ αὐτὸς ἐπικουρεῖ ὀρφανοῖς from/by the he who presides lay aside/take off and he aids/helps at need orphans exercised leadership/ ruler PARA TO PROESTOTI APOTITHETAI KAI AUTOS EPIKOUPEI ORPHANOIS Preposition Article Perfect active participle Present passive indicative Conjunction Pronoun Present passive indicative Adjective 45 τε καὶ χήραις, καὶ τοῖς διὰ νόσον ἢ δι’ ἄλλην αἰτίαν and and/also widows and the by ill/sick/diseased or by another reason/cause TE KAI CHERAIS KAI TOIS DIA VOSON HE DI ALLON AITIAN Particle Conj Noun Conjunction Article Preposition Noun Conjunction Prep Adjective Noun λειπομένοις, καὶ τοῖς ἐν δεσμοῖς οὖσι, καὶ τοῖς παρεπιδήμοις lack/fall short and the in bonds/chains/fetters to be and the sojourner needy captives/prison temporary resident LEIPOMENOIS KAI TOIS EN DESMOIS OUSI KAI TOIS PAREPIDEMOIS Present middle participle Conjunction Article Preposition Noun Present active participle Conj Article Adjective οὖσι ξένοις, καὶ ἁπλῶς πᾶσι τοῖς ἐν χρείᾳ οὖσι . to be stranger/foreigner and simply/sincerely all the in need/lacking to be without qualification/absolutely/in other words OUSI ZENOIS KAI HAPLOS PASI TOIS EN CHREIA OUSI Present active participle Adjective Conjunction Adverb Adjective Article Preposition Noun Present active participle κηδεμὼν γίνεται protector/guardian/one who cares for others to be KEDEMON GINETAI Noun Present passive indicative 67:7: τὴν δὲ τοῦ ἡλίου ἡμέραν κοινῇ πάντες τὴν the but/now the sun day common all/every the TEN DE TOU HELIOU HEMERAN KOINE PANTES TEN Article Conj Article Noun Noun Adjective Adjective Article 46 (ἐπειθὴ) συνέλευσιν ποιούμεθα, ἐπειδὴ πρώτη ἐστὶν ἡμέρα, ἐν come together/assembly do/make when/after/as soon as first to be day in/on SUNELEUSIN POIOUMETHA EPEIDE PROTE ESTIN HEMERA EN Noun Present middle indicative Conjunction Adjective Present active ind Noun Preposition ᾗ ὁ θεὸς τὸ σκότος καὶ τὴν ὕλην τρέψας κόσμον ἐποίησε, or the God the darkness/gloom and the material/matter turn world/universe make/produce world/forest direct/transformed created HE HO THEOS TO SKOTOS KAI TEN HULEN TREPSAS KOSMON EPOINSE Pronoun Article Noun Article Noun Conjunction Article Noun Aorist active participle Noun Aorist active indicative καὶ Ἰησοῦς Χριστὸς ὁ ἡμέτερος σωτὴρ τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκ and Jesus Christ/Messiah the our Deliverer/Savior the this day from/of KAI IESOUS KRISTOS HO HEMETEROS SOTER TE AUTE HEMERA EK Conjunction Noun Noun Article Adjective Noun Article Pronoun Noun Preposition νεκρῶν ἀνέστη· τῇ γὰρ πρὸ τῆς κρονικῆς ἐσταύρωσαν αὐτόν, dead/lifeless arose/rose up the for before the Saturnalia/Saturn crucified he Saturday NEKRON ANESTE TE GAR PRO TES KRONIKES ESTAUPOSAN AUTON Adjective Aorist active indicative Art Conj Preposition Article Adjective Aorist active indicative Pronoun καὶ τῇ μετὰ τὴν κρονικήν, ἥτις ἐστὶν ἡλίου ἡμέρα, φανεὶς and the with/after the Saturnalia/Saturn which is sun day appeared/shined the day of Venus/Saturda brought light KAI TE META TEN KRONIKEN HETIS ESTIN HELIOU HEMERA PHANEIS Conj Article Preposition Article Adjective Pronoun Present active ind Noun Noun Aorist passive participle 47 τοῖς ἀποστόλοις αὐτοῦ καὶ μαθηταῖς ἐδίδαξε ταῦτα, the apostles his and disciples taught/instructed this TOIS APOSTOLOIS AUTOU KAI MATHETAIS EDIDAZE TAUTA Article Noun Pronoun Conjunction Noun Aorist active indicative Pronoun ἅπερ εἰς ἐπίσκεψιν καὶ ὑμῖν ἀνεδώκαμεν. exactly for investigation/inquiry/inspection and you delivered/imparted/handed over the very thing consideration submitted HAPER EIS EPISKEPSIN KAI HUMIN ANEDOKAMEN Pronoun Preposition Noun Conjunction Pronoun Aorist active indicative A Translation of Chapters 65-67 (the First Apology) Chapter 65: The Baptized Receive the Bread and Cup 65:1 But after washing46 the one who is persuaded and has agreed, we bring him to the ones called brothers where they have assembled. Common prayers will be earnestly offered for us, for the enlightened one just baptized, and on behalf of all everywhere. We pray to be counted worthy. We pray that since we have learned the truth, by our works we will be found good citizens and observers of what is commanded, so we might be saved with eternal salvation. 65:2 The prayers having concluded, we welcome one another with a kiss.47 65:3 Then the leader of the brothers is brought bread and a cup of water and mixed wine, and he offers praise and glory to the Father of all through the name of the Son and the Holy Spirit. He sends many thanksgiving48 prayers to the Father on behalf of those counted worthy of this honor from Him. The prayers and thanksgiving49 completed, all the people in attendance assent in praise by saying, “Amen!” 65:4 Now, the Hebrew word “Amen” means “So be it!” 65:5 And when the leader has given thanks50 and all the people have approved, the ones called by us deacons allow each person present to share in the bread and the wine and water mixture that the leader Eucharistized.51 Then the deacons carry it away to those brothers not present. 46 Verb, aorist middle imperative, λοῦσαι. This seems to reference baptism as described in 61.3, the “washing in water.” 47 Noun, φιλήματι. This was a greeting kiss to persons of the same sex. 48 Noun, εὐχαριστίαν. 49 Noun, εὐχαριστίαν. 50 Verb, aorist active participle, εὐχαριστήσαντος. 51 Verb, aorist active participle, εὐχαριστηθέντος, “which thanksgivings were made for.” 48 Chapter 66: The Meal Called Eucharist 66:1 And we call this meal Eucharist,52 which none is permitted to participate in but one trusting our teachings to be true, washed53 for the cleansing of sins and regeneration, and who lives their life like Christ instructed. 66:2 We partake of these things not as ordinary bread nor an ordinary drink, but in the way Jesus Christ our Savior through the word of God was made incarnate and took upon Him flesh and blood for our deliverance. So, we were instructed that this Eucharistized54 food by the prayer of His word is the blood and flesh of Jesus who was made flesh. This food nourishes our flesh and blood by transformation.55 66:3: For the Apostles, in their remembrances56 they produced, which are called Gospels, handed down what Jesus commanded them. Jesus took bread, gave thanks,57 and said, “Do this in remembrance of me; this is my body.” And in the same way, He took the cup, gave thanks,58 and said, “This is my blood.” He shared it only with them. 66:4: Indeed, the evil demons imitated this, handing down the sacred rites59 of Mithras to be performed. You know or have the capability to learn that their incantations use bread and a cup of water in their secret rites of initiation. Chapter 67: On The Day Called Sunday 67:1 But after these things, for the rest, we always remind one another of these things. And those who have wealth provide for all in need, and we constantly come together. 67:2: For all that we have contributed, we praise the Creator of all through His Son Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit. 67:3: And on the day called Sunday, all gather together who are from towns or farms. The remembrances60 of the Apostles or the writings of the Prophets are read aloud as long as there is time. 67:4: Next, when the reader has ceased, the leader instructs and challenges verbally to imitate the good things read. 67:5: Then all stand up together and offer prayers. And, as we said before, when we cease from our prayers, bread, wine, and water are presented, and the leader likewise offers prayers and thanksgiving61 as he is able. The people, assenting, say, “Amen.” The 52 Noun, εὐχαριστία, “thanksgiving, gratitude.” 53 Verb, aorist middle participle, λουσαμένῳ. This seems to refer to baptism as referenced in 61.3 and 65.1. 54 Verb, aorist active participle, εὐχαριστηθεῖσαν, “food made the Eucharist” or “food expressing gratitude.” 55 Noun, μεταβολὴν, could also be translated “assimilation,” “metabolic process,” or “change.” 56 Noun, ἀπομνημονεύμασιν, could also be translated as “recorded sayings,” “memoirs,” or “recollections.” 57 Verb, aorist active participle, εὐχαριστήσαντα. 58 Verb, aorist active participle, εὐχαριστήσαντα. 59 Noun, μυστηρίοις, “mysteries.” 60 Noun, ἀπομνημονεύματα, could also be translated as “recorded sayings,” “memoirs,” or “recollections.” 61 Noun, εὐχαριστίας. 49 distribution of the Eucharistized62 elements63 and the partaking of them happens by each person, and those not present are sent elements by the deacons. 67:6: And those who are prosperous contribute according to the choice that each one desires. Their contribution is brought to the leader and he aids the needy: orphans, widows, the sick, or needy for another reason, the imprisoned, and foreigners who are temporarily residing with us. In other words, the leader is to be the one who cares for all in need. 67:7: But Sunday is the day when we all make this common assembly. It is the first day on which God created the world, transforming the darkness and matter, and Jesus Christ, our Savior, arose from the dead on the same day. For they crucified him on the day before Saturday,64 and on the day after Saturday, which is Sunday, he appeared to His Apostles and disciples and taught them these very things, which we have delivered to you for investigation. This literature review investigates what it would mean to recover the historical, biblical practices concerning the Eucharist described by Justin that were followed in the second-century church. The review will follow chapters 65-67 as a guide, utilizing historical writings pertinent to the Lord’s Supper and contemporary literature addressing the major themes described by Justin. These practices reviewed include who should participate in the Lord’s Supper, the spiritual nourishment found at the table, the regular receiving of the Lord’s Supper, the communal nature of the communion meal, and the ministry provided to those not in attendance for worship. The Participants in the Lord’s Supper Before describing the nature of the Lord’s Supper, Justin Martyr clarifies who can participate in receiving the communion meal. In Chapter 66 of his First Apology, Justin gives three prerequisites for those who can partake in the Lord’s Supper. Justin notes that “none is permitted to participate in but one trusting our teachings to be true, washed for the cleansing of sins and regeneration, and who lives their life like Christ instructed.”65 62 Verb, aorist passive participle, εὐχαριστηθέντων. 63 While not in the original text, the “elements” that are distributed and sent are bread, wine, and water. 64 Adjective, κρονικήν, “Saturnalia” or “The day of Venus.” 65 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.1. 50 The prerequisites Justin describes as necessary for participation in the Lord’s Supper are often designated as a closed communion approach to this ordinance. Dallas Vandiver defines closed communion as the view that “all who have been baptized as professing believers and are members in good standing of their respective churches may be admitted to the Lord’s Supper under the administration of another local church of like faith and order.”66 Unbelievers are not permitted to participate in the sacrament because they are outside the covenant church community.67 Justin emphasizes this point by adding a concluding thought to his quotation of Jesus’ words of the institution of the communion meal. Justin states, “He shared it only with them,”68 meaning it was only the believing apostles who participated in the initial Lord’s Table. Guy Prentiss Waters suggests a “verbal fencing”69 of the Lord’s Supper each Sunday to close the communion table. He believes it should only be taken by those who have publicly professed faith in Jesus, are baptized disciples, members of an evangelical church, submitted in life to His rule, and await the final wedding supper of the Lamb.70 The literature of the Puritan era referred to this issue as how to “communicate worthily” 71 at the Lord’s Table, based on Paul’s warning against eating the bread or drinking the cup of the Lord in an “unworthy manner” (1 Cor 11:28, Legacy Standard Bible). Joel Beeke and Mark Jones write that the communion 66 Dallas W. Vandiver, Who Can Take the Lord’s Supper? A Biblical-Theological Argument for Closed Communion (Eugene, OR: Pickwick Publications, 2021), 13, EBSCOhost. 67 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 85. 68 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 69 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 461. 70 Ibid., 464. 71 Question 170 of the Westminster Larger Catechism of 1647 asks, “How do they that worthily communicate in the Lord’s Supper feed upon the body and blood of Christ therein?” 51 table should only be taken seriously, after much preparation and careful self-examination. 72 It requires not only mental assent and doctrinal accuracy, but also a heartfelt engagement.73 A Believing Participant To partake in the communion meal, Justin notes that a participant must first trust the teachings of the church are true. He explains earlier in First Apology that confessing the truth of Christ in faith should be so significant that the believer would gladly die for his belief.74 Justin then compares saving belief to the Roman soldier’s Sacramentum, the military oath when they “covenanted and enrolled” their loyalty to the emperor, preferring “their allegiance before their own life and parents and country and all their families.”75 This is significant since categorizing the Lord’s Supper as a sacrament has its etymological foundations in this term. In Dialogue With Trypho, Justin notes that the Eucharist finds meaning in remembering Jesus’ Passion that He endured “for all those souls who are cleansed from sin,” and then comments that “we should thank God” (εὐχαριστῶμεν τῷ Θεῷ) that Jesus has “saved us from the sin in which we were born.”76 This statement stresses that the Eucharist is only to be received by those who are saved from sin and whose souls are cleansed. Ray Van Neste looks to 1 Corinthians 10:21 to argue that only the Lord’s people can fellowship with the Lord at His table.77 One of the benefits of the supper is the strengthening and 72 Joel R. Beeke and Mark Jones, A Puritan Theology: Doctrine for Life (Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2012), 753, 755. 73 Ibid. 74 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 39.3. 75 Ibid., 39.5. Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 45. 76 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 41.1. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, Thomas Falls, 62-63. 77 Ray Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of The Local Church” in The Lord's Supper: Remembering and Proclaiming Christ until He Comes, ed. Thomas R. Schreiner and Matthew R. Crawford (Nashville, TN: B & H Publishing Group, 2010), 296, ProQuest. 52 confirming of faith that the participant already possesses.78 The Lord’s Supper can be categorized as a positive institution, meaning it has scriptural warrant as commanded by Jesus’ word. So, by its nature, only a believer in the words of Christ should participate.79 Jesus only invites His disciples to this table, demonstrating that they are no longer part of the world.80 Those who are under church discipline or have been removed from the church, as well as those who are unbelievers, should be kept from the table. This makes the communion meal not only a proclamation of the gospel message, but an evangelistic message to unbelievers that they currently do not have access to the benefits of the gospel.81 Those who trust in Christ and His teachings and those who do not are now publicly seen as those who belong to the church and those who belong to the world.82 Seventeenth-century Baptist pastor and catechism author Benjamin Keach wrote concerning who can partake of communion, “None but such as are true converts, or who sincerely believe in the Lord Jesus Christ; for this is an outward sign of an inward grace received.”83 Unbelievers can be invited to the church, but the ultimate invitation for the non-Christian is to come to Jesus in faith for the forgiveness of sins, not to the communion 78 Michael Horton, The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims On the Way (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 818. 79 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 76. Justin emphasizes this point when he writes that Jesus “shared it [the bread and cup] only with them [the Apostles].” Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 80 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 83. J.C. Ryle writes that the Lord’s Supper is an ordinance “not for the faithfulness but for the believing, not for the unconverted but the converted, not for the impenitent sinner but for the saint.” J.C. Ryle, Knots Untied: Being Plain Statements on Disputed Points in Religion (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2016), 188. 81 Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of the Local Church,” 296. 82 Chad Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion with God in Union with Christ,” in Theology For Ministry: How Doctrine Affects Pastoral Life and Practice, eds. William R. Edwards, John C.A. Ferguson, and Chad Van Dixhoorn (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 2022), 451. 83 Benjamin Keach, Tropologia, A Key to Open Scripture-Metaphors, in Four Books. vol. 4:44 (London: William Hill Collingridge, 1858), 4:44, quoted in James M. Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader: A Contextual-Historical Exposition of the Second London Baptist Confession of Faith (Cape Coral, FL: Founders Press, 2022), 562. 53 Table.84 They should be taught that they first need the ordinance of baptism, not the Lord’s Supper.85 A Baptized Participant In addition to being a believer, Justin writes that the person who comes must have been washed for the cleansing of sins and regeneration to participate in the communion meal. This language is reminiscent of the message of Peter at Pentecost: “Repent, and each of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins; and you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit” (Acts 2:38, LSB). In chapter 65 of First Apology, Justin describes what happens immediately after someone has believed the church’s teaching and is washed in the waters of baptism.86 Following their baptism, they are prayed for, greeted as a Christian, and brought to the person presiding over the service to take the Lord’s Supper with all those present. The many different branches of historic Christianity have almost all affirmed that baptism should precede an individual receiving the Lord’s Table.87 Since baptism is widely regarded as the “entering ordinance” 88 of the church, it should be required to participate in the meal. Baptism is mentioned in the Great Commission as a command integral to the life of a believer, preceding “teaching them to keep all that I commanded you” (Matt 28:20, LSB). As such, it is a prerequisite for participation in communion.89 A document from the era of the Apostolic Fathers, 84 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 84. 85 Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of The Local Church,” 296. 86 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 65.1-5. 87 Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of the Local Church,” 297. 88 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 68. 89 Ibid., 65. 54 the Didache, requires baptism in the name of the Lord to take part in the Eucharist and the command of Jesus in Matthew 7:6 (LSB) to not “give what is holy to dogs” as evidence of this.90 Michael Haykin notes that there have been debates in Protestant evangelical Christianity over what makes one a baptized participant welcome to the Lord’s Table due to the diverse positions held on baptism.91 These differences regard the mode of baptism and whether the infants of a believing parent should be baptized or only those who make a personal profession of faith, often designated as believer’s baptism. It is helpful to analyze the description of baptism in the Didache and compare it with Justin’s explanation to better comprehend the meaning of Justin’s “washed for the cleansing of sins and regeneration.”92 The Didache commands the location of baptism to be in “living water,” and if this is not accessible, then “in other water,” and if there is no “cold” available, then use “warm water.”93 Finally, if there is no access to either cold or warm water, then the mode of pouring water over the head may be utilized.94 Justin also describes baptism as taking place away from where the church community usually gathers, “where there is water.”95 90 Didache 9.5. “Only let those who have been baptized in the name of the Lord eat and drink at your Eucharists. And remember what the Lord has said about this: do not give to dogs what is holy.” Thomas O’Loughlin, The Didache: A Window on the Earliest Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge; Baker Academic, 2010), 167, Logos. The London Baptist Confession of Faith 30:8 also gives Matthew 7:6 as evidence of not admitting the ungodly to the communion meal. 91 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 58-59. This contention is regarding whether Baptist churches should accept infant baptism from paedo-baptistic congregations as acceptable for participation in the Lord’s Table when worshiping in the congregation as a guest. 92 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.1. 93 Didache 7.1-2. “And concerning baptism, baptize this way. Having said all these things beforehand, immerse in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit in living water. But if you should not have living water, immerse in other water; and if you are not able in cold, immerse in warm water.” William Varner, “The Didache or Teaching of the Apostles” in The Apostolic Fathers: An Introduction and Translation (London: T&T Clark, 2023), Bloomsbury Collections. 94 Didache 7.3. “[A]nd if you should not have either, pour out water onto the head three times in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit.” Varner, “The Didache or Teaching of the Apostles.” 95 Justin Martyr, Apologia i. 61.3. Justin Martyr and Leslie William Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 66. 55 In the Didache, the one being baptized is able to be instructed and commanded to abstain from food by fasting for one or two days before being baptized.96 Justin also describes the baptismal candidates as ones who “are persuaded and believe that the things we teach and say are true, and undertake to live accordingly,” who “are instructed to pray and ask God with fasting for the remission of their past sins.”97 Justin refers to the first birth of those being baptized and summarizes their childhood as being “brought up in bad habits and wicked behavior,” and then expresses that the baptismal candidate does so “of free choice and knowledge,” contrasting this with their childhood of “ignorance.”98 In summary, it can be argued that the early church communities utilizing the Didache would have normally baptized where there was a body of water, pouring would not have been the normal mode of baptism, and the one being baptized would have been capable of receiving instruction and fasting. This description is harmonious with Justin’s account. In conclusion, since neither the Didache nor Justin mentions infants as recipients of the ordinance,99 both describe the normative location of baptism as a body of water away from where the church gathers, and describe the baptized recipient as capable of receiving instruction and personal fasting, it could be argued that their church communities either did not know of infant baptism or, at the least, did not consider this practice as normative. It could also be assumed that immersion or dipping, 96 Didache 7.1, 4. In 7.1., it states that everything preceding chapter 7 must have been instructed to the one being baptized beforehand. “Having said all these things beforehand.” Then, in 7.4, the command for fasting is found. “And prior to the baptism, let the one baptizing fast; also the one being baptized; and if any others are able. And order the one being baptized to fast one or two days prior.” Varner, “The Didache or Teaching of the Apostles.” 97 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 61.2. 98 Ibid., 61.10. 99 Justin writes, in 27.1, that “to expose newly born infants is the work of wicked people.” He elaborates in this section on the dangers that follow such practice, demonstrating the church rejected infant exposure as immoral. While an argument from silence, it could be reasoned that if his church community baptized infants, Justin could have emphasized this point in chapters 61 and 65. Rather than exposing infants or committing cannibalism by consuming them, they are baptized in the church community. Justin Martyr, Apologia i 27.1. 56 rather than pouring, was the normative mode of baptism, though pouring was acceptable when a body of water was unavailable. Since pouring is acceptable in the Didache, non-immersed believers could receive the Lord’s Table. Justin does not emphasize the mode of baptism but instead emphasizes the recipients and meaning of baptism. In contrast to these conclusions, some Baptist authors have refused the non-immersed from receiving communion. A representative of this view is Baptist pastor James Oliphant. Using John 3:23 and Acts 2:41-42, Oliphant argues that non-immersed Christians should not be invited to the Lord’s Supper. 100 He reasons that Jesus first gave the sacrament only to the eleven previously baptized (John 3:23) and that the people who participated in the “breaking of bread” (Acts 2:41-42, LSB) were previously baptized at Pentecost.101 This view is reflected in the Baptist Faith and Message 2000 of the Southern Baptist Convention.102 There have been Baptists in history who have not closed the communion meal to non-immersed Christians. For instance, in his work “Differences in Judgment About Water-Baptism, No Bar to Communion,” John Bunyan argues that church fellowship and the Lord’s Table should not be refused to unbaptized believers.103 Since those baptized as infants and professing believers were already baptized by the Holy Spirit at conversion (1 Cor 12:13), this should allow them entrance to the table.104 For Bunyan, the non-baptized but believing have been united with Christ 100 James H. Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists (Knightstown, IN: Particular Baptist Heritage Books, 2022), 203. 101 Ibid., 203. 102 The Baptist Faith and Message 2000, VII, “Baptism and the Lord’s Supper,” accessed February 10, 2024. “Christian baptism is the immersion of a believer in water in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. . . .Being a church ordinance, it is prerequisite to the privileges of church membership and to the Lord’s Supper.” https://bfm.sbc.net/bfm2000/#vii 103 See John Bunyan, “Differences in Judgment About Water Baptism, No Bar To Communion: Or, To Communicate with Saints, as Saints, Proved Lawful” (London: 1673). 104 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 64-65. 57 crucified, buried, and risen, and are only missing the sign of their heart commitment.105 Baptist missionaries in Serampore, India, questioned whether it would be fitting to deny the Lord’s Table to known and received believers and leaders throughout church history, such as Isaac Watts, Jonathan Edwards, David Brainerd, or George Whitefield, though they were only baptized as infants.106 A Faithful Participant To participate in the communion meal, the third prerequisite given by Justin is that the participant should live their life as Christ has instructed. L.W. Barnard notes that Justin’s Lord’s Supper emphasized the ethical nature of the Eucharist.107 Earlier in First Apology, Justin explicitly teaches the importance of a life conformed to Christ. He writes, “Those who are found not living as He taught should understand that they are not really Christians, even if they profess with the lip the teachings of Christ; for not those who profess, but those who do the works will be saved.”108 Professing Jesus with the lips and even baptism is not enough to demonstrate true Christianity. Justin’s church community requires faithful living as proof of conversion and for admittance to the Eucharist. Justin then quotes Matthew 7:21-23 as evidence of this declaration of a life following Christ as evidence of salvation.109 105 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 64. 106 Ibid., 87. 107 Barnard, Justin Martyr: His Life and Thought, 145. 108 Justin Martyr, Apologia i. 16.8. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 32. 109 “Not everyone who says to Me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of My Father who is in heaven will enter. 22“Many will say to Me on that day, ‘Lord, Lord, in Your name did we not prophesy, and in Your name cast out demons, and in Your name do many miracles?’ 23“And then I will declare to them, ‘I never knew you; DEPART FROM ME, YOU WHO PRACTICE LAWLESSNESS’ (Matthew 7:21-23, LSB). 58 In chapters 14-16 of First Apology, Justin utilizes the Sermon on the Mount and the changed lives of members of his community to demonstrate the transformation found in those who live as Christ commanded. He gives positive illustrations to make evident what living their life like Christ instructed entails. He writes that those who lived lives of fornication now live in chastity and temperance; those who were involved in magical arts are now dedicated to God; those who used to live for acquiring wealth now generously give to those in need; those who used to hate and murdered one another now live reconciled lives in harmony with their former enemies in the church community; and for former enemies not yet Christians, they now pray for them and seek to lead them to Christ.110 In Second Apology 4, Justin remarks that a truly holy life imitates God’s nature in all things and speaks the truth in all things.111 A faithful life leads not only to mental assent to the correct doctrines of the cross and communion, but also a heartfelt engagement.112 These faithful participants have historically been designated worthy receivers since Paul warned against receiving the communion meal in an unworthy manner (1 Cor 11:27).113 This is not based on personal righteousness or as a reward for good behavior, for Scripture teaches that humanity has no inherent righteousness of their own (Rom 3:10).114 Puritan writer Edmund Calamy, in writing about the sacramental nature of the table, looks to the participation in communion as a renewal of vows to the Lord, and a “solemn 110 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 14.2-3. Justin testifies that in the same way, “we who once killed one another not only do not make war on our enemies, but in order not to utter falsehood or deceive our inquisitors, we gladly die confessing Christ.” Apologia i 39.3. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 45. 111 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 4.2, 4. 112 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 755. 113 See The Westminster Confession of Faith of 1647, 29:7 and The London Baptist Confession of 1689, 30:7. 114 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 562. 59 engagement to live as persons devoted to him.”115 Each observation of the communion meal enables the believer to grasp more firmly all Jesus has done on the Cross and, in turn, allows the believer to recommit themselves to Christ.116 Paul’s warning concerning rightly taking the table includes the healing of divisions and factions developed in the Corinthian church (1 Cor 11:17-19). Relationships must be reconciled with fellow believers to participate in communion properly. He also alerted against a specific situation in Corinth involving gross immorality, drunkenness, gluttony, and church division according to economic status.117 All of these sinful actions would inhibit one from faithfully living as Christ has instructed. Paul stated that those who eat and drink in an unworthy manner would be “guilty of the body, and the blood of the Lord” (1 Cor 11:27, LSB) and “eats and drinks judgment to himself” (1 Cor 11:29, LSB). This would make one guilty before God, like Judas, who betrayed Jesus, or the ones at the crucifixion who bound Jesus’ hands and spit on His face, or the soldiers who spilled His blood.118 This could allude to the first wrongful eating in Scripture of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil in Genesis 2:17, since Paul warns that “a number sleep” (1 Cor 11:30, LSB) from wrongful participation. To close the communion table to non-faithful 115 Edmund Calamy, “The Express Renewal of Our Christian Vows” in The Puritans on The Lord’s Supper, ed. Don Kistler (Grand Rapids, MI: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1997), 43. Thomas Vincent writes that “repentance, self-judging, and godly sorrow for our sins, which have brought sufferings upon our Lord” include faithful participation, along with “love to Christ” and a “new and sincere obedience to the gospel, which we must engage in, and be full resolved, in the strength of the Lord, to perform.” Thomas Vincent, The Shorter Catechism of the Westminster Assembly Explained and Proved from Scripture (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1674. Reprint, 2010), 263. 116 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 36-37. 117 Horton, The Christian Faith, 819. 118 English Annotations, sigla EE2, comment on 1 Corinthians 11:26, quoted Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 566. 60 participants has the redemptive purpose of allowing them to repent and amend their lives.119 Continuous, unrepentant, and rebellious sin violates the very heart of the Lord’s Table.120 The grace in the Lord’s Supper is not saving but instead grows the participant spiritually to be faithful to Christ when received rightly. The Lord’s Table should be a means of grace for the weak, nourishing and strengthening faith, not a reward for those who are strong. This should keep one from morbid introspection at communion or self-excommunication from the table.121 Instead, the recipient of the Lord’s Table should strive, in repentance and faith, to go forward living as Christ lived. Spiritual Nourishment Found at the Meal An important aspect of the Lord’s Supper is understanding what happens when a Christian rightly participates in the communion meal. How does a believer receive spiritual help and growth when taking the bread and the cup? Justin writes concerning spiritual nourishment in the communion meal: We partake of these things not as ordinary bread nor an ordinary drink, but in the way Jesus Christ our Savior through the word of God was made incarnate and took upon Him flesh and blood for our deliverance. So, we were instructed that this Eucharistized food by the prayer of His word is the blood and flesh of Jesus who was made flesh. This food nourishes our flesh and blood by transformation.122 119 Mark Earngey, “Soli Deo Gloria: The Reformation of Worship” in Reformation Worship: Liturgies from the Past and Present, eds. Jonathan Gibson and Mark Earngey (Greensboro, NC: New Growth Press, 2018), 40. 120 Christopher A. Hall, Worshiping with the Church Fathers (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 71. Hall quotes fourth and fifth-century church father Augustine of Hippo, who writes that even if a baptized Christian takes part in the Eucharist, they do not receive Christ in the meal if their life is not repentant and faithful. “Hence, these too should not be said to eat the body of Christ, for they cannot be counted among the members of Christ. For, not to mention the other sins, they cannot at the same time be members of Christ and members of a harlot.” Augustine of Hippo, De civitate Dei 21.25. Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans, Volume II, trans. William E Green, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957), 137. 121 Horton, The Christian Faith, 819. 122 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.2. 61 The nourishment Justin speaks of from the Lord’s Supper has been understood in various ways in the church. Beeke and Jones note that the communion meal is an encounter with Christ in which God and the Christian act toward each other.123 It is an earthly encounter with the heavenly Christ.124 They then quote the Puritan John Owen, who emphasizes that by faith at the table, believers behold a dying Christ, and from it, gain the strength that leads to the death of sin in their souls.125 Just as physical food strengthens believers’ bodies by receiving it, the believer gains nourishment from this meal for his spiritual health.126 The table should not be treated as a place to eat a physical meal, which was a problem in Corinth (1 Cor 11:20-22). It is not enough to outwardly partake; there must be an inward act, the exercise of faith.127 The bread and wine in the supper represent Jesus Himself, providing the nourishment needed for the spiritually needy and weary people of Christ.128 It does not produce new faith but strengthens the existing faith of those who follow Jesus.129 It is a fresh and powerful reminder that the death of Christ has sufficiently atoned for the sins of the participant.130 Apostolic father Ignatius of Antioch describes the Eucharist as “a medicine of immortality” and “an antidote to take that we might not die but live forever in Jesus Christ.”131 123 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 754. 124 Ibid., 743. 125 Ibid., 754. John Owen writes, “We labour [sic] by faith so to behold a dying Christ, that strength may thence issue forth for the death of sin in our souls.” John Owen, Sacramental Discourses, in Works, 9:582 quoted in Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 743. 126 Ibid., 757. 127 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 563. 128 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 81. 129 Ibid., 84. 130 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 99. 131 Ignatius, To the Ephesians 20.2. William Varner, “Ignatius” in The Apostolic Fathers: An Introduction and Translation (London: T&T Clark, 2023), Bloomsbury Collections. 62 The apostle Paul states that when a Christian takes the Lord’s Table, they “proclaim” His death (1 Cor 11:26, LSB). Believers who partake in the Supper will benefit from the regular reminder of Jesus’ death, which is the foundation of their salvation.132 A Meal with God Justin describes the Eucharist as a “meal” (66.1) and “food” (66.2), reminding Christians that the first supper was in the context of the Passover meal. The Lord’s Supper has been called the church’s regular family meal.133 When God met with His people under the old covenant, it was usually accompanied by a meal. 134 Several examples of this are the tree of life in Eden (Gen 2:8-9, 16-17), Melchizedek bringing bread and wine to Abram (Gen 14:17-20), a male lamb without blemish and unleavened bread in Passover (Ex 12:3, 8), the Manna and water from the rock that God gave Israel in the wilderness (Ex 16:14-15; 17:6), Moses and the elders of Israel on Sinai who ate and drank with God (Ex 24:9-11), the food offerings of the sacrificial system (Lev 21:6, 22), and the Bread of the Presence in the Tabernacle (Ex 25:30; Lev 24:5-9). Wrongful worship in the Old Testament is pictured as feasting at the high places and altars of other gods and not at the temple of the one true God.135 The Synoptic Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ temptation by Satan, noting that when Jesus was hungry, the Devil tempted Him to command stones to become bread (Matt 4:1-4; Luke 4:1-4), demonstrating how a meal can have immense spiritual ramifications. Jonathan Gibson notes that history 132 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 554. 133 Matt Merker, Corporate Worship: How the Church Gathers As God’s People (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2021), 128. 134 Jonathan Gibson writes that “In Eden was familial, covenantal communion with God, through his word and sacrament” since Adam could partake of the Tree of Life and commune with God in the garden. Jonathan Gibson, “Worship: On Earth As It Is in Heaven” in Reformation Worship: Liturgies from the Past and Present, edited by Jonathan Gibson and Mark Earngey (Greensboro, NC: New Growth Press, 2018), 4. 135Ibid., 11. 63 culminates in two meals, one for worshipers and one for idolaters. For those who worship God, there is the Marriage Supper of the Lamb, and for idolaters, there is the Great Supper of God in judgment (Rev 19:6-10; 17-21).136 Revelation ends with humankind again being offered to eat with God of the tree of life and drink the water of life for eternity (Rev 22:14, 17). Kruger observes that in the beginning of the church’s history, the worship service and Lord’s Supper were often celebrated in the context of a feast known as the Agape meal (2 Pet 2:13; Jude 12).137 This meal needs to be set within the broader context of the other meals Jesus participated in, including His miraculous feedings of the multitudes and the Hellenistic group suppers in His contemporary culture.138 Hans Dieter Betz concludes from the literature of the Apostolic Fathers contained in the Didache and Ignatius of Antioch that the Agape meal was an ordinary dinner consisting of eating bread and drinking wine until all members had their fill.139 The meal served as a place where the poor could be fed, and mutual love was demonstrated by all in the church community. The first communion celebrations were joined with the Agape meal and celebrated in the evening, like the Last Supper of Jesus with His disciples. The ancient Greek and Roman cultures also had banquets, which were ways to meet and celebrate shared values and common commitments.140 136 Gibson, “Worship: On Earth As It Is in Heaven,” 16. 137 Kruger, Christianity at the Crossroads, 103. There is a famous letter preserved from Pliny the Younger, governor of Pontus/Bithynia from 111-113 AD, that demonstrates this historically. As Pliny writes to Emperor Trajan, he observed that the church of his day had a “custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food--but ordinary and innocent food.” Pliny The Younger, “Letters 10.96-97,” https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/pliny.html 138 R. C. D. Jasper et al., G. J. Cuming, Paul F. Bradshaw, and Maxwell E. Johnson, Prayers of the Eucharist: Early and Reformed (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press Academic, 2019), 26, ProQuest. 139 Hans Dieter Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult,” 1800. 140 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 22. 64 The meal described by Justin Martyr differed from Greco-Roman banquets contemporary to him. He records readings from Scripture, teaching (verbal instruction), and prayer all preceding the eating of the meal, which was the opposite of the Greco-Roman banquet.141 There are also examples of Jewish groups, like the Qumran community, eating meals together to express and create bonds of social obligation and divine obedience.142 This would be a natural hospitality event in the homes of the early church, demonstrating unity. The Agape feast would also mirror specific acts recorded in the ministry of Jesus, like His dining with tax collectors and sinners (e.g., Matt 11:19; Mark 2:15-17; Luke 7:34) and usage of banquets as a venue for teaching (e.g., Luke 11:37-54; 14:7-14).143 Schaff describes the Agape feast as “a family feast, where rich and poor, master and slave met on the same footing, partaking of a simple meal, hearing reports from distant congregations, contributing to the necessities of suffering brethren, and encouraging each other in their daily duties and trials.”144 By the beginning of the second century, the Agape feast and the communion meal were separated, with the Lord’s Supper continuing in the morning and the Agape feast in 141 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 48. 142 Ibid., 25. 143 Ibid., 26. McGowan quotes Robert J. Karris who wrote, “Jesus was killed because of the way he ate.” Robert J. Karris, Luke: Artist and Theologian; Luke’s Passion Account as Literature, Theological Inquiries (New York: Paulist Press, 1985), 70. 144 Philip Schaff and David Schley Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910), 240, Logos. 65 the evening.145 While other foods may have been eaten at the Agape feast, when the Lord’s Supper was moved to the morning, the elements of bread and wine became the meal.146 Prayer and Words Attached to the Meal Justin describes the bread and cup of the communion meal as “Eucharistized food by the prayer of His word.”147 “Eucharistized” (εὐχαριστηθεῖσαν) can be understood as “food made the Eucharist” or “food expressing gratitude.” One translation renders it “the food which is blessed.”148 Justin emphasizes that the prayer of Jesus’ word is what “Eucharistized” or set apart the bread and wine from being ordinary elements of bread and drink. In his description of worship in chapter 67 of First Apology, Justin described how the congregation begins with corporate prayer. Then bread, wine, and water are brought to the meeting, followed by the “leader,” or the one who presides over the meal, offering “prayers and thanksgivings.”149 The leader may have included the church officers of the New Testament, such as the elder (presbyter) or overseer (bishop), the bishops or deacons mentioned in chapter 15 of the Didache, or even the homeowner who welcomed the church to dine in their homes.150 Justin 145 Schaff and Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 239. Concerning why it is not required to receive the Lord’s Supper at night as Jesus gave it in the first institution, Thomas Vincent writes, “We are no more bound from this example to receive this sacrament at night, than we are bound to receive it in an upper room, and but twelve in company, which was the practice in the first institution.” Vincent, The Shorter Catechism of the Westminster Assembly, 255. 146 Alistair C. Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape in Early Christian Communities (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2023), 159, ProQuest. 147 Justin Martyr, Apologia i. 66.2. 148 Justin Martyr, “The First Apology of Justin,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, eds. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 185, Logos. 149 Justin Martyr, Apologia i. 67.5. 150 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 40. McGowan notes that Ignatius of Antioch, writing close to the middle of the second century, required the presence of the bishop for the Eucharist to be celebrated. “Without the overseer, let no one perform any of the functions that pertain to the church. Let that eucharist be valid which is 66 writes that the leader blesses the food as he is able.151 This seems to allude to extemporaneous prayer as he leads the worship service.152 Justin’s emphasis on the thanksgiving prayers might have been made to distinguish the Christian celebration of the Eucharist from pagan meals of his time, like the cult of Mithras he mentions in 66.4.153 This prominent role of words of prayer and thanksgiving most likely gave rise to the name Eucharist as a summary of the ordinance in its entirety. Van Dixhoorn stresses the importance of words in the Lord’s Supper. Without explanation, the table would be an empty ritual or even a snack. Instead, the Lord Jesus gave words of explanation, making the communion meal rich and full.154 The blessing and words of the institution transform this moment from an ordinary meal to an ordinance or sacrament of the church. The prayer sets apart these everyday items found in most homes for a sacred purpose.155 When the participant hears the words of the institution, they are reminded that Jesus spoke these words and that they are hearing the voice of Christ.156 The participants can picture themselves in the upper room with the disciples and consider the words as if Jesus were speaking to them. The oldest liturgical prayers of communion have been found in the Didache, which contains three prayers of thanksgiving for the cup, the broken bread, and all mercies.157 offered by the overseer or by one to whom the overseer has designated.” Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans 8.1. William Varner, “Ignatius” in The Apostolic Fathers: An Introduction and Translation. 151 Justin Martyr, Apologia i. 67.5. 152 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 38. 153 Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult,” 1802. 154 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union with Christ,” 453, 456. 155 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 558. 156 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 108. 157 Schaff and Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 236. Didache 9-10. 67 Commenting on baptism, the church father Augustine writes about the importance of the spoken word attached to the element: “Take away the word, and what is the water except water? The word is added to the elemental substance, and it becomes a sacrament, also itself, as it were, a visible word.”158 The fact that Jesus blessed the meal initially (Matt 26:26) and that this was continued as a practice in the church’s life demonstrates that at least one goal of the communion meal is to bring blessing to Christ’s people.159 Without Jesus’ words, the meaning behind communion is quickly lost, and it devolves into a common meal. Bread and Wine Justin writes that the elements used in the communion meal were bread and a cup of wine mixed with water.160 Why use the specific elements of bread and wine in the meal? Jesus gave His disciples these elements during the celebration of the Passover, observed annually on the eve of the Israelites’ exodus from Egypt.161 All the Synoptic Gospels mention bread and wine in the meal, which were essential to this feast of Israel. The Passover celebration also utilized various cups of wine, which were drunk and blessed with eating and explanations.162 Unleavened bread was also central to the Passover celebration due to the commands of the law and its presence at the first Passover (e.g., Ex 12:8; Num 9:11; Deut 16:3). Susan Bubbers understands the use of 158 Augustine, In Evangelium Johannis tractatus 80.3. Augustine and John W. Rettig, Tractates on the Gospel of John 55-111. Volume 4. Fathers of the Church, vol. 90 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1994), 117, ProQuest. 159 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 81. 160 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 65.3; 67.5. 161 Andreas J. Köstenberger, “Was the Last Supper a Passover Meal” in The Lord's Supper: Remembering and Proclaiming Christ until He Comes, eds. Thomas R. Schreiner and Matthew R. Crawford (Nashville, TN: B & H Publishing Group, 2010), 34, ProQuest. 162 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 22, 24. 68 the bread and wine as a transformed Passover meal demonstrating that “God’s acts of deliverance continue in Christ, and that new beginnings continue to flow from God.”163 These two components also reflect the staple food and drink of the ancient Mediterranean.164 Andrew Fuller suggests that Jesus gave the bread and wine as an accommodation because of human frailty.165 John of Damascus also regards the use of bread and wine as God’s “usual condescension” because “God knows human weakness.”166 These elements stimulate the human senses of sight, smell, taste, and touch and complement ordinary senses used in worship when hearing the Word of God.167 Waters notes that in the institution of the Lord’s Supper, a striking element missing in the Gospel accounts is that of a lamb, the centerpiece of the Passover meal. He observes the intentionality of this by the Gospel writers because Jesus is the Passover Lamb of God (e.g., John 1:29, 36; 19:36; 1 Cor 5:7).168 This omission emphasizes the importance of bread and wine as elements. An interesting question to consider is why water is added to the wine in Justin’s Eucharist. Is this a reference to the blood and water that flowed from the side of Jesus on the cross (John 19:34)? Was this to lessen the alcoholic content of the wine? Was this the common combination of water and wine in the second century, in which the Greeks mixed their wine with 163 Susan I. Bubbers, A Scriptural Theology of Eucharistic Blessings (London, UK: Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2013), 75, Bloomsbury Collections. 164 Ibid., 24. 165 Andrew Fuller, “Expository Discourses on the Book of Genesis” in Complete Works of the Rev. Andrew Fuller, vol. 3, 64, quoted by Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 41. 166 John of Damascus, The Orthodox Faith 4.13. John of Damascus and Frederic H. Chase Jr., “The Orthodox Faith” in Saint John of Damascus: Writings, Fathers of The Church, vol. 90 (New York, NY: Fathers of the Church, 1958), 358. 167 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 565. 168 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 78. 69 water in a mixing bowl to ensure the strength of the wine was equal for all?169 The third-century church father, Cyprian, considered the mixing of wine with water as a type of the union of Christ with His church.170 The fourth-century church father Chrysostom taught that the blood and water that flowed from the side of Jesus when pierced by the spear were “saving fountains, the one of blood, the other of water, all the world.”171 The twelfth-century church doctor Bernard of Clairvaux wrote, “Christ gave us his flesh for food, his blood for drink, his soul as our price, the water from his side for our cleansing.”172 In the Gospel account of the Lord’s Table, Jesus describes the wine as the fruit of the vine (Matt 26:29; Mark 14:25; Luke 22:18). Does this require fermented wine for proper receiving? Puritan Thomas Vincent writes, “What sort of wine is not said; yet it seemeth most suitable, and most lively to represent the blood of Christ, when the wine is of a red colour [sic].”173 Another question to be answered is whether there is a picture of salvation in the pouring out of the wine. In her Thoughts on the Lord’s Supper, eighteenth-century Calvinist Baptist writer Anne Dutton suggests that the pouring out of the wine speaks of the pouring out of the soul of Jesus unto death for sinners (Isa 53:12).174 The wine of communion is also discussed by Jesus following the meal. 169 Nadya Williams, Cultural Christians in the Early Church: A Historical and Practical Introduction to Christians in the Greco-Roman World (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2023), 32, ProQuest. 170 Schaff and Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 244. 171 John Chrysostom, Homiliae in epistulam I ad Corinthios 1.12. John Chrysostom, “Homilies of St. John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, on the First Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians” in Saint Chrysostom: Homilies on the Epistles of Paul to the Corinthians, ed. Philip Schaff, trans. Hubert Kestell Cornish, John Medley, and Talbot B. Chambers, vol. 12, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, First Series (New York: Christian Literature Company, 1889), 142, Logos. 172 Bernard of Clairvaux, quoted in Thomas Watson, The Lord’s Supper (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2015), title page. 173 Vincent, The Shorter Catechism of the Westminster Assembly, 255. 174 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 108. “Therefore, I will divide for Him a portion with the many, And He will divide the spoil with the strong; Because He poured out His soul to death, And was numbered with the transgressors; Yet He Himself bore the sin of many, And interceded for the transgressors” (Isaiah 53:12, LSB). 70 The Lord said, “I will not drink of this fruit of the vine from now on until that day when I drink it new with you in My Father’s kingdom” (Matt 26:29, LSB). A last question to answer is why did Jesus make emphasis of a future day of drinking the fruit of the vine? Participation in the bread and wine brings anticipation of what it will be like to sit with Jesus in the complete revelation of His coming kingdom.175 The participants receive a foretaste of the new creation, being prepared for eternity.176 The use of the elements given by Jesus is integral to the meaning of the ordinance of the Lord’s Supper. The Real Presence One of the most significant points of controversy in the Christian church is the extent to which Christ is present in the bread and wine of the communion meal. In chapter 66, Justin describes the result of partaking in the communion meal with language of presence. His account has been translated and interpreted variously. Justin wrote, “[T]his Eucharistized food by the prayer of His word is the blood and flesh of Jesus who was made flesh. This food nourishes our flesh and blood by transformation.”177 The different approaches to Jesus’ presence in the Lord’s Supper have been categorized as memorialist, spiritual presence, real presence, and transubstantiation, with some overlap between the positions. Schaff notes that the ancient church did not inquire into the mode of the presence of Christ in communion and he considered it anachronistic to read these theories back into the patristic age.178 It is possible to find support for all later theories that developed regarding the 175 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 123. 176 Merker, Corporate Worship, 131. 177 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.2. 178 Schaff and Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 241. 71 mode of Jesus’ presence in relation to the elements of bread and wine.179 Craig Allert argues that the Eucharist was so central to Christian worship that a systematic investigation into the doctrine of the atonement standing behind the sacrament was not developed.180 This idea could help explain the lack of detailed explanation concerning how the body and blood of Christ were present in the communion meal. What is evident in much of the writings of the Fathers is that in the Eucharist, there is a genuine encounter with God in Jesus Christ through the ordinary elements of bread and wine.181 The controversy surrounds how Jesus is encountered in these elements. Historically, Christians have agreed with a memorialist approach to the table, but not with what Guy Waters calls a “bare memorial” position.182 The memorialist view is based on the command of Jesus recorded in Luke 22:19 and 1 Corinthians 11:24-25, in which Jesus directs the eating of the bread and drinking of the cup to be done “in remembrance of me.” Justin utilizes this memorialist, biblical language in his description of communion. In chapter 66 of First Apology, Justin emphasizes that his mandate for partaking of the Lord’s Supper is based on the remembrances of the apostles and quotes Luke 22:17-19.183 179 Horton, The Christian Faith, 803. 180 Craig D. Allert, Revelation, Truth, Canon and Interpretation: Studies in Justin Martyr’s Dialogue with Trypho (Boston, MA: BRILL, 2002), 112, ProQuest. 181 Christopher A. Hall, Learning Theology With the Church Fathers (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 131. An example of this is found in seventh-century church father John of Damascus, who writes, “[N]ot that the body which was received up into the heavens descends, but that the bread itself and the wine are changed into God’s body and blood. But if you inquire how this happens, it is enough for you to learn that it was through the Holy Spirit . . . And we know nothing further save that the Word of God is true and energises [sic] and is omnipotent, but the manner of this cannot be searched out.”181 John Damascene, “An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith” in St. Hilary of Poitiers, John of Damascus, eds. Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, trans. S. D. F. Salmond, vol. 9b, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Second Series (New York, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1899), 83, Logos. 182 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 82. 183 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 72 In Dialogue with Trypho, Justin comments on a prophecy from Isaiah 33:13-19. This passage is a call to those who are “far off” (Isa 33:13), prophesying that “bread will be given” (Isa 33:16) to him. Justin writes that this bread “alludes to the bread which our Christ gave us to offer in remembrance of the Body which he assumed for the sake of those who believe in him, for whom he also suffered, and also to the cup which he taught us to offer in the Eucharist, in commemoration of his Blood.”184 The remembrance of the bread and cup points to the incarnation of Jesus, His being made flesh, and the reality of his physical suffering. Earlier in the letter to Trypho, he writes that the Eucharist is a “remembrance of the Passion that he endured for all those souls who are cleansed from sin.”185 Every time one witnesses the breaking and giving of the bread and distribution of the cup, one should be reminded of the selfless giving of Jesus' life for mankind's salvation.186 One of the primary purposes of the communion meal is to oppose the forgetfulness of the death of Jesus in the participant’s heart.187 When taking the bread of Christ and eating it, the participant is called to remember Jesus hanging on the cross, His suffering for their sins, and His body dead and lying in the grave. When one contemplates the violent tearing of His body as the bread is broken and remembers the whips, thorns, nails, and spear, the participant is reminded of the horror of sin.188 When drinking 184 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 70.2-4. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, vol. 3, Selections from the Fathers of the Church, trans. Thomas P. Falls, eds. Thomas P. Halton and Michael Slusser (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2003), 109-110W, ProQuest. 185 Ibid., 41.1. 186 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 82. 187 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 756. They quote Matthew Henry, who wrote, “Remember him! Is there any danger of our forgetting him? If we were not wretchedly taken up with the world and the flesh, and strangely careless in the concerns of our souls, we could not forget him.” Matthew Henry, The Communicant’s Companion, 44. 188 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 452. James Oliphant emphasizes that as the bread naturally must be crushed and broken via a millstone to prepare the grain, the grapes must be crushed so the juice can come out to make wine; in the same way, thorns, buffeting, scourging, spitting, and the other agonies of the cross demonstrate Jesus’ crushing, and the blood must run from His body to wash away sins. Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists, 197-198. 73 the cup, the believer is called to remember Jesus’ sweat mingled with blood, the bloody nature of His suffering, and the blood and water that flowed from His side. Remembering that the wine symbolizes spilled and splattered blood as one drinks it is unpleasant.189 Oliphant notes that Jesus’ flowing blood is seen in the wine, which quenches the flames of hell.190 This should be meditated on and pictured afresh each time one eats and drinks at the Lord’s Table. The bare memorial position that Waters warns of often finds its source in the theology of Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli, though this may be an unfair accusation as Zwingli acknowledged the spiritual presence of Christ for those who receive the elements by faith. Zwingli emphasized the bread and the wine as chief signs of what God accomplished in the death of Jesus and believed that the supper was a memorial.191 The bare memorial position implies an absence of Christ in the meal, a kind of “sacramental minimalism.”192 John Sutcliff, pastor of Olney Baptist Church from 1775 until 1814, provided this example of the memorialist view. Sutcliff wrote that if a friend had gone away and left those behind with a small present and asked before his departure to “keep it as a memorial of his friendship,” even if the present has “little intrinsic worth, we set a high value on it, for his sake.”193 The position of General Baptist authors has historically been that outside of remembering, there is little to no significance for the communion participants.194 This teaching 189 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 452. John Owen wrote, “We labour by faith so to behold a dying Christ, that strength may thence issue forth for the death of sin in our souls.” John Owen, Sacramental Discoures, in Works, 9:582, quoted in Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 754. 190 Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists, 201. 191 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 30. 192 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 462. 193 John Sutcliff, The Ordinance of the Lord’s Supper considered, in Circular Letter of the Northamptonshire Association (Dunstable: J. W. Morris, 1803), 2–3 quoted by Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 48. 194 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 556-557. 74 did not begin to become widespread in Baptist life outside of General Baptists until the last quarter of the eighteenth century.195 Michael Horton describes this approach to remembering as Western and contrasts it with the Jewish understanding, which means “participating here and now in certain defining events in the past and also in the future.”196 The position of transubstantiation, held by the Roman Catholic Church, is that “the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity” of Jesus is “truly, really, and substantially contained” 197 in the bread and wine. This view teaches a literal transformation or conversion of the bread and the wine. A “change of the whole substance” occurs from bread into Christ’s body and wine into Christ’s blood, respectively. As the officiating Roman Catholic priest standing in the role of Christ states, “This is my body,” the spoken word transforming the bread and wine offered.198 The patristic writings often refer to the Eucharist as the body and blood of Jesus. The Apostolic Father Ignatius of Antioch notes that unbelievers and heretics “abstain from the eucharist and from prayer because they do not admit that the eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ, the flesh which suffered for our sins and whom the Father raised in his kindness.”199 Christopher Hall sees this language as a rebuttal to the heresy of Gnosticism spreading in the 195 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 46. 196 Horton, The Christian Faith, 799. 197 Catechism of the Catholic Church (New York, NY: An Image Book, 1995), 383. 198 Ibid., 383. The Catechism quotes Saint John Chrysostom, “The priest, in the role of Christ, pronounces these words, but their power and grace are God’s. This is my body, he says. This word transforms the things offered.” Edward Sri elaborates, “This change, however, is not a chemical one. All the outward sensible appearances of bread and wine remain. The host still looks like bread, tastes like bread, and feels like bread. And the chalice contains what to all the senses appears to be ordinary wine. The chemical structures of bread and wine remain the same. But underneath these appearances, Jesus’ body and blood is really present in the Eucharist.” Edward Sri, A Biblical Walk Through the Mass: Understanding What We Say and Do in the Liturgy (West Chester, PA: Ascension Press, 2011), 10. 199 Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans 6.2. Varner, “Ignatius” in The Apostolic Fathers: An Introduction and Translation. 75 early church. 200 Forms of this heretical teaching seem to have developed in the first century, which could be why the apostle John explicitly uses incarnational language (John 1:14; 1 John 1:1; 2 John 7). Christ came bodily, died bodily, resurrected bodily, and ascended bodily to heaven. Now, He feeds His body on Earth, the church, with His body and blood through the Spirit in the sacrament of communion.201 Contemporary to Justin Martyr is the second-century church father Irenaeus, who wrote against both Gnostic and Docetic heresies, warning against those who would teach that Jesus was a man merely in appearance and did not have a real human birth or true flesh and blood.202 The language he uses to refer to the Eucharist should be read in light of his refuting these false teachings. In his Against Heresies, he writes that the believer receives nourishment from the cup, His blood, and increase from the bread, His body. He emphasizes that the Eucharist does not speak of “some spiritual and invisible man” but of “an actual man, with flesh, nerves, and bones.”203 Irenaeus also wrote that it is through “the invocation of God” that the bread “is no longer common bread, but the Eucharist, consisting of two realities, earthly and heavenly.”204 In Justin’s Second Apology, he discusses the slanders that his contemporary church suffered at the hands of non-Christians. One of the charges was that the early Christians “feast on human flesh,”205 or cannibalism. In chapter 10 of his Dialogue with Trypho, he mentions the slander “that we eat human flesh.”206 He describes this kind of behavior as wickedness and the 200 Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 53. 201 Ibid., 53. 202 Irenaeus, Adversus haereses 4.33.2. 203 Ibid.,5.2.2. James R. Payton Jr., Irenaeus on the Christian Faith (Cambridge: James Clarke & Co., 2012), 158, ProQuest. 204 Ibid., 4.18.5. 205 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 12.2. 206 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 10.1. 76 kind of person who would do such a thing as sensual and intemperate.207 This demonstrates that Justin did not consider the Eucharist a type of cannibalism of Christ. Candida Moss notes that the accusation of cannibalism, as well as incest against Christianity, was not exclusive to the faith, as many groups were rhetorically attacked in this way with such false charges.208 Justin’s use of the word “transformation” (μεταβολή) is critical in understanding this debate. This noun can be translated as “change” or “transition”209 and is sometimes used in the Septuagint for “modification” or “alteration.”210 Justin also uses this word in Second Apology 2.1-5, discussing a newly converted woman who was married to an immoral man. The woman stayed with her husband, seeking to persuade him to come to Christ. Justin writes that she hoped her husband might at some point “change”211 or “show amendment”212 of life. Justin also uses μεταβολῆς to speak of a change of time or season (First Apology 13.2; Second Apology 5.2). In First Apology 20.2 and Second Apology 7.3, Justin uses the word as a noun to describe the Stoic doctrine of the world being reformed by a “change.”213 Lampe understands this as a change of substance, transformation, or renewal of the world.214 Justin then uses a verbal form to note that “God, the Creator of all, is superior to the things that are to be changed (μεταβαλλομένων).”215 207 Justin Martyr, Apologia ii 12.1-2. 208 Candida R. Moss, “Infant Exposure and the Rhetoric of Cannibalism, Incest, and Martyrdom in the Early Church.” Journal of Early Christian Studies 29, no. 3 (2021): 351. 209 H.G. Liddell, s.v. “μεταβολή.” 210 Johan Lust, Erik Eynikel, and Katrin Hauspie, s.v. “μεταβολή,” A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint: Revised Edition (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart, 2003), Logos. 211 Apologia ii 2.5. Justin Martyr, Minns, and Parvis, Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, 273. 212 Ibid., 74. 213 Apologia i 20.2; Apologia ii 7.3. Ibid., 131, 273. 214 G. W. H. Lampe, s.v. “μεταβολή,” A Patristic Greek Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), 849. 215 Apologia i 20.2. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 34. 77 Contrasting the uses of this word in these sections, it is evident that Justin used it to demonstrate a difference of purpose and resolution or even ontology in what it is modifying. Lampe demonstrates that the Fathers used the word in various manners including physical, moral, and theological categories; its use ranges from a physical and chemical change (First Apology 20.2) to a change of quality or characteristic (First Apology 15.7) or a change of state or mind (First Apology 12.11; 16.4; 21.6).216 Lampe notes that the word is historically used later in the fifth-century Christological work, Eranistes, by church father Theodoret of Cyrus to refer to the consecration of the Eucharistic elements.217 How is the believer nourished by the food of the Eucharist? Hans Dieter Betz renders this noun “metabolic process,” translating the clause as “from which food our blood and flesh are nourished by metabolic process.”218 This is a naturalistic understanding of the term. Both Philip Schaff and Christopher Hall translate μεταβολή as “transformation (assimilation).”219 From the passage’s context, Schaff argues against transubstantiation and defends this as physically assimilating the bread and wine into the body of the one receiving the Lord’s Supper.220 Hall’s translation of this sentence continues: “Through its transformation—is, we are taught, the flesh and blood of Jesus who was made flesh.”221 He summarizes, “The fathers joyously affirm that God gladly uses elements from the created order to feed” the body of Christ.222 216 Lampe, s.v. “μεταβολή,” 849-850. 217 Ibid., s.v. “μεταβολή,” 850. 218 Hans Dieter Betz, “Unique by Comparison: The Eucharist and Mithras Cult,” 1811. 219 Schaff and Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 236; Christopher A. Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009), 57. 220 Ibid., 242, Footnote 1. 221 Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 57. 222Ibid. Hall follows with fourth-century church father Ambrose of Milan, who wrote, “Before the blessing with heavenly words occurs [the bread] is a different thing that is referred to, but after the consecration it is called a 78 Theologian and church historian Justo González notes Justin affirming the food as the flesh and blood of Jesus but also asserts that it is still food in the sense that it nourishes the bodies of all who partake in it.223 Seventh-century Father John of Damascus, in a similar way, describes this transformation work by illustrating coal and fire. Using the coal that Isaiah saw in Isaiah 6 as an illustration, he writes, “[T]his coal was not plain wood but wood joined with fire. Thus also, the bread of communion is not a plain bread, but bread joined with the Godhead.”224 This is a helpful illustration, as it views the bread still in its natural form but united with divinity, or the Godhead.225 Much of the understanding of the church fathers is grounded in the words of Jesus in John 6:51-54 and His warning that “unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink His blood, you have no life in yourselves” (6:53, LSB). 226 This passage does not directly address the Lord’s Supper but instead the miraculous feeding of the 5,000, and seems to be making a point about faith more than about ritual (John 6:35).227 James Dunn suggests that John’s vocabulary in the sixth chapter is more influenced by a concern to refute the docetic heresy that Jesus did not have a natural body or die an actual death on the cross.228 Bubbers responds to this by noting that Jesus uses εὐχαριστήσας in John 6:11 and εὐχαριστήσαντος in John 6:23, connecting John 6 to body. . . . Before the consecration [the wine] has another name, but after the consecration it is designated blood.” Ambrose, On the Sacraments, 9:54. 223 Justo L. González, A History of Christian Thought, Volume 1: From the Beginnings to the Council of Chalcedon (Nashville, KY: Abingdon Press, 1970), 109. 224 John of Damascus, The Orthodox Faith 4.13. John of Damascus and Frederic H. Chase Jr., “The Orthodox Faith” in Saint John of Damascus: Writings, 359. 225 Christopher Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 66. 226 Ibid., 58. 227 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 45. 228 Bubbers, A Scriptural Theology of Eucharistic Blessings, 92. Bubbers quotes James Dunn, ‘John VI – A Eucharistic Discourse?’ NTS 17 (1971): 335-336. 79 εὐχαριστέω in the words of institution of Mark 14:23 and Matthew 26:27. Bubbers suggests this text is a mystery that cannot be explained by modern views of the presence of Jesus.229 She concludes that this passage has to do with the believer’s union with Christ by faith through the Holy Spirit, which involves a physical dimension, and that the Word is eaten by the power of the Spirit.230 Sixteenth-century Puritan William Perkins refuted the doctrine of transubstantiation by asking how the body of Jesus could be eaten at the institution at the Last Supper before He was bodily crucified.231 Puritan Thomas Vincent argued against transubstantiation as the sense of the bread remains the same in figure, location, color, taste, and smell. This differs from when Jesus turned water into wine, as the water lost its substance, color, taste, and smell, and was changed into wine.232 He continues that after eating the bread, if it were the physical body of Jesus, it would be turned into the substance of the partaker’s body; If the partaker were wicked, the body of Christ would be raised at the resurrection to be tormented in hell forever.233 Seventeenth-century minister Henry Pendlebury argued that if transubstantiation were true, not only would wicked men take part in Jesus’ body, but even animals like rats and mice may eat of the natural body of Christ if the crumbs of the bread fall to the ground, leading to their eternal life.234 Perkins made a similar point by emphasizing that over time, if not consumed the remainder of the bread will mold and leftover wine will sour, proving they keep their 229 Bubbers, A Scriptural Theology of Eucharistic Blessings, 93, 100. 230 Ibid., 101. 231 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 746. This argument is taken from William Perkins, A Golden Chaine, in Works, 1:71. 232 Vincent, The Shorter Catechism of the Westminster Assembly, 257. 233 Ibid., 259. 234 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 561. 80 substance as food and drink.235 Horton writes that twice Jesus emphasized that He would not share the communion meal with His disciples “until the kingdom of God” comes in fullness (Luke 22:16, 18, LSB). So even when Jesus was physically present at the table, His physical absence is expected until he comes again.236 The classical Lutheran view of the presence of Christ rejects transubstantiation. Lutheranism adheres to the body and blood being present in and under the elements. The bread remains bread and the wine remains wine, both contain Christ’s body and blood.237 This means the body and blood of Christ are united with the elements to be locally and physically present.238 Martin Luther explains that instead of saying that the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, Christ comes to the bread and wine with His body and blood.239 The sixteenth-century Protestant Reformer John Calvin made a different emphasis, teaching that Christ was spiritually present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist after the invocation of the Holy Spirit in prayer, though not physically present.240 Calvin stressed that it was by faith that the flesh of Christ was eaten in the communion meal, as the partaker lifted their hearts and minds on high where Jesus 235 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 746. 236 Horton, The Christian Faith, 800. 237 In Luther’s Large Catechism, he writes that the Eucharist is “the true body and blood of the Lord Jesus Christ in and under the bread and wine . . . As we said of Baptism that it is not mere water, so we say here that the sacrament is bread and wine, but not mere bread or wine such as is served at the table. It is bread and wine comprehended in God’s Word and connected with it.” Martin Luther, “The Large Catechism” in The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1959), 447. 238 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 745. See Edward Reynolds, “Meditations on the Holy Sacrament,” in Works, 3:73. 239 Horton, The Christian Faith, 850, quoting Luther, Large Catechism, 5, 18. 240 Christopher Hall, Worshiping With The Church Fathers, 72. John Calvin writes that “we must not dream of such a presence of Christ in the Sacrament as the craftsmen of the Roman court have fashioned—as if the body of Christ, by a local presence, were put there to be touched by the hands, to be chewed by the teeth, and to be swallowed by the mouth.” He writes that the bond of connection between Christ and his people in the Lord’s Table is “the Spirit of Christ, with whom we are joined in unity, and is like a channel through which all that Christ himself is and has is conveyed to us” John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Volume 2, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 1372, Logos. 81 is.241 Through the Holy Spirit, Jesus can make Himself the substance of the sacrament without descending into the elements bodily. It is in this way that His body and blood are communicated to believers.242 Calvin’s theology of the communion meal led to the majority view of seventeenth and eighteenth-century Puritans and Baptists. Their position held that God had fellowship with His people at the Lord’s Table and that Jesus was spiritually present with them.243 Haykin clarifies that the critical issue concerning the presence of Christ is found in the faith of the one receiving the elements. When receiving the communion meal with faith, the participant spiritually receives what is symbolized. The link between the believer and Jesus is the Holy Spirit, who binds the believer to the ascended Christ.244 It is not that Christ is present corporally in the elements themselves, for this would mean the participant would have to distinguish between the sign and the one who is signified.245 In his An Orthodox Catechism, Hercules Collins affirmed that the partaking of Christ in the table is through the working of the Holy Spirit.246 The 1689 London Baptist Confession elaborates that a worthy receiver of the ordinance of communion, “by faith, really and indeed, 241 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 745. See also Calvin, Institutes, 1365. Calvin writes in his sermon on 2 Samuel 6, “When we have the bread and wine in the Lord’s Supper, it is the same as if Jesus Christ were coming down from heaven and making himself our food, so that we could be filled with him. We must not, therefore, take these signs as visible things and figures which are to feed our spiritual senses, but are to realise that God joins his virtue and truth to them, so that the thing and the effect are joined to the figure. We must not put asunder what God has joined together.” John Calvin, Sermons on 2 Samuel, trans. Douglas Kelly (Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth, 1992), 236. 242 Horton, The Christian Faith, 813-814. 243 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, xiv-xv. 244 Ibid., 30-31. 245 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 453. 246 Collins writes in the answer to question 81, “Through the Holy Spirit, who lives both in Christ and in us, we are united more and more to Christ’s blessed body.” Hercules Collins, An Orthodox Catechism: Being the Sum of the Christian Religion, Contained in the Law and the Gospel (Knightstown, IN: Reformed Baptist Faith and Family Ministry, 2014), 56. 82 yet not carnally, and corporally, but spiritually receive, and feed upon Christ crucified and all the benefits of his death.”247 Oliphant explains that while the bread of communion is natural, Christians must spiritually eat Christ, and the table is food for their souls.248 Edward Reynolds explains that since the believer’s union with Jesus is mystical and not physical, His presence is mystical and not physical.249 After Jesus’ ascension to heaven, His physically glorified body remains there, though by faith Christians are united with Christ and partake of His spiritual presence. This means the glorified body of Christ does not return from heaven to Earth, but rather the hearts and souls of believers, through faith and by the Spirit, are raised to heaven, united with Him.250 This is the position of the London Confession, which specifies that concerning the elements of communion, “in substance and nature, they still remain truly and only bread and wine”251 because the corporeal resurrected body of Jesus remains in heaven at the Father’s right hand. Dutton used 1 Corinthians 10:20 to argue that Christians should not be present at pagan worship because demons are present, in the same way the Lord is present during the celebration of communion (1 Cor 10:16-17). She writes that as the participant reaches out their hand to receive the bread, they should receive the Lord, given and broken for them. 252 This is not a physical receiving of Christ, just as a pagan would not physically receive a demon at their cultic 247 The London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689, chapter 30, paragraph 7. 248 Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists, 197. 249 Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 748. 250 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 564. Renihan writes about the ancient liturgical phrase Sursum Corda, meaning “Lift up your hearts.” He then quotes Puritan John Trapp, who states, “The Minister also stirs up the people, to look higher than [sic] to what they see, with Sursum corda; Lift up your hearts. A thing in use among the Primitive Christians.” John Trapp, A Clavis to the Bible or A New Comment upon the Pentateuch (London: Timothy Garthwait, 1649), 311. 251 The London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689, 30.5. 252 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 105. 83 worship. Instead, this is a spiritual receiving of Jesus by faith in the sign of bread. He is spiritually present at this meal, though He is bodily ruling and reigning in the heavens (e.g., Luke 22:69; Acts 2:33-34; 7:56; Heb 2:9; Rev 3:21). This explains, as Justin describes in 66.2, how the food is “Eucharistized” and is the flesh and blood of Jesus. Justin should not be charged with the later doctrine of transubstantiation. For Justin, Christ is present at the Eucharist, and the bread and cup is not received as ordinary elements but are instead changed as Jesus Himself is present with the worthy receiver when they are partaken. Justin does not seek to explain the presence of Jesus and this change as much as he does confess it and declare it to his reader. The elements are still real bread, wine, and water, nourishing the body physically but also the soul of the worthy receiver. The Regular Receiving of the Lord’s Table In chapter 67 of the First Apology, Justin describes the weekly worship of Christians on Sunday. It is described as a common assembly, and its regular liturgy includes the reading of Scripture, the president of the assembly instructing, prayer, the Eucharist, and an offering.253 This weekly observance of the Lord’s Supper is also commanded in the Didache.254 Barnard notes that Sunday worship without the Eucharist is unknown to Justin.255 Ray Van Neste points out that communion is one of the four elements that characterize a Christian gathering as early as Acts 2:42.256 He refers to Acts 20:7 as “the most striking reference to the frequency of the Lord’s 253 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.3-6. 254 Didache 14.1. “On the day which is the Day of the Lord gather together for the breaking of the loaf and giving thanks.” O’Loughlin, The Didache: A Window on the Earliest Christians, 170. 255 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 20. 256 Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of the Local Church,” 291. 84 Supper.”257 Communion was central to the church’s weekly gathering, and it is mentioned by Luke without an explanation, suggesting it was the common practice of the church.258 In contrast, Van Dixhoorn notes that some churches administer the Lord’s Supper infrequently, believing that if they partake less often, the act will be more meaningful.259 Reformed Baptist pastor Charles Spurgeon, in his sermon The Blood Shed for Many, famously answered this objection: This remembrance of the death of Christ must be a constant remembrance. The Lord’s Supper was meant to be a frequent feast of fellowship. It is a grievous mistake of the church when the communion is held but once in the year, or once in a quarter of a year; and I cannot remember any Scripture which justifies once in the month. I should not feel satisfied without breaking bread on every Lord’s-day. . . . We cannot think of that death too often.260 A common objection to the frequent observation of the Lord’s Supper is that it could lead to a mere ceremony, a communion with sacraments rather than the Savior.261 However, this claim could be made of other worship service elements, including singing, Scripture reading, or even the sermon. It is impossible to meditate on and remember too frequently the death of Jesus Christ. 257 Van Neste, “The Lord’s Supper in Context of the Local Church,” 291. “And on the first day of the week, when we were gathered together to break bread” (Acts 20:7, LSB). 258 Ibid., 292. Mark Earngey notes that during the Reformation era, there was a diversity of views concerning the frequency of celebration. Martin Luther and Martin Bucer in Germany both instituted weekly communion. Thomas Cramner of the Church of England desired communion to be offered weekly in worship. John Calvin of Geneva Switzerland also desired weekly communion but was only allowed to celebrate it four times yearly due to the Genevan Council. Huldrych Zwingli and his successor Heinrich Bullinger in Switzerland only celebrated it three to four times yearly. John Knox of Scotland envisioned monthly communion but modified the frequency to four times yearly. Mark Earngey, “Soli Deo Gloria: The Reformation of Worship,” 39. The Westminster Directory for the Public Worship of God (1645) instructed ministers to celebrate the supper “frequently” as “most convenient,” especially after the morning sermon and prayers. Beeke and Jones, A Puritan Theology, 750. 259 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 450. 260 Charles Spurgeon, “The Blood Shed for Many” in Metropolitan Tabernacle Pulpit, vol. 33. October 23, 2023. https://www.spurgeon.org/resource-library/sermons/the-blood-shed-for-many. 261 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 460. 85 Paul’s discussion of the severe problems in the Corinthian church surrounding the Lord’s Table only makes sense in its frequent observation. Van Neste asks, “Could it have been such a problem if it only occurred quarterly?”262 The problem of Corinth was not reflected in its frequency but in the deficient participation of those attending the gathering. Haykin considers this issue historically and notes that in Baptist communities, the practice of an altar call after the sermon as a place of recommitment to Jesus undermined a richer understanding of the Lord’s Supper.263 An emphasis on the altar call in some evangelical congregations slowly replaced the Lord’s Supper as a weekly worship practice. Reformed and Presbyterian church directories have called for a frequent celebration of communion, with John Calvin arguing that the Supper should be celebrated whenever the Word of God is preached.264 The Communal Nature of the Communion Meal The very etymology of the name communion implies there is a communal nature to the ordinance. Justin Martyr describes how the Lord’s Supper brings about a communion with Christ and His people. In the First Apology chapter 67, Justin describes a weekly church worship service. He writes, “And on the day called Sunday, all gather together who are from towns or farms” and calls this gathering a “common assembly.”265 In Dialogue With Trypho, Justin comments on the prophecy of Malachi 1:11 (LSB), where Yahweh states, “My name will be great among the nations, and in every place incense is going to be presented to My name.” He 262 Van Dixhoorn, “The Sacraments: Communion With God in Union With Christ,” 460. 263 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 120, 123-124. 264 Horton, The Christian Faith, 821. 265 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.3, 7. 86 writes that this is fulfilled in the sacrifices of the Gentiles who “offer to him in every place,” and defines the sacrifices offered as “the bread of the Eucharist, and the chalice of the Eucharist.”266 At the heart of this point is that every time the Lord’s Supper is observed, the church gathers as the family of God and is reminded of this identity as they commune with their Savior, just as the disciples did at the institution of the meal.267 This was a unifying meal for the early church, as union with Christ and union with other believers were inseparable realities.268 Sociologically, Alistair Stewart sees the Eucharist as fundamentally about forming community and identity in the church.269 This meal draws participants out of private rooms into a public dining room of the church, together at a family table.270 Sadly, this uniting ordinance has sometimes led to the loss of life by violence when believers refused to confess the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation.271 As a result, harsh refutations and separations have occurred due to the differences in interpretation. Using 1 Corinthians 5:11, Oliphant argues that the real object of the Lord’s Supper was to show love and Christian confidence for one another.272 Paul’s charge not to keep company or even eat with a professed brother living in sin demonstrates the unity demanded in the communion meal. Just as there is a recommitment to Christ in the meal, there is also a 266 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 41.1-3. 267 Waters, The Lord’s Supper as the Sign and Meal, 83-84. 268 Christopher Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 68. 269 Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape, 284. 270 Horton, The Christian Faith, 822. 271 Renihan, To the Judicious and Impartial Reader, 553. Christopher Hall writes that the Lord’s Supper has “often led to misunderstanding, suspicion, conflict, hatred, violence, and death among Christ’s own disciples. Too often the Eucharist has led to schism rather than unity.” Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 51. 272 Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists, 199. 87 recommitment to one another in the Lord’s Table as brothers and sisters fellowship together.273 Any divisions that exist in members should be reconciled in preparation for the Lord’s Table.274 While 1 Corinthians 10:16 emphasizes union with Christ at the table, 1 Corinthians 10:17 demonstrates union with other believers in this same Supper.275 Paul teaches that those who share the bread and the cup are bound together and made one as they partake.276 It is a visible picture of the body of Christ as people from different ages, genders, ethnicities, societal statuses, and giftings come together to participate in this meal. The Didache teaches that the Eucharist is a meal in which the believer’s reconciliation with God is replicated on a finite scale as reconciled church members share together.277 Even with the modern usage of individual cups to take the cup of Jesus’ blood, the synchronized act of receiving highlights the church drinking together from one spiritual cup.278 The same would be true of the synchronized eating of the bread. The Lord’s Supper is to be a church ordinance since together, the bread and wine “proclaim the death of the Lord until he comes” (1 Cor 11:26, LSB).279 McGowan notes that Paul’s idea of the eaten body is focused communally rather than individually, and Jesus’ presence is found in corporate consumption rather than taking them in isolation.280 Paul directs the 273 Haykin, Amidst Us Our Beloved Stands, 120. 274 Merker, Corporate Worship, 130. 275 “Is not the cup of blessing which we bless a sharing in the blood of Christ? Is not the bread which we break a sharing in the body of Christ? 17Since there is one bread, we who are many are one body, for we all partake of the one bread” (1 Corinthians 10:16–17). 276 Sam K. Williams and Mark Allan Powell, “Lord’s Supper” in The HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Revised and Updated), ed. Mark Allan Powell (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2011), 567, Logos. 277 Hall, Worshiping With the Church Fathers, 69. Didache 14:2 states, “[D]o not let anyone who is having a dispute with a neighbor join until they are reconciled so that your sacrifice may not be impure.” O’Loughlin, The Didache: A Window on the Earliest Christians, 170. 278 Merker, Corporate Worship, 128. 279 Oliphant, Principles and Practices of the Regular Baptists, 204. 280 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 32. 88 Corinthians to “come together” and “wait for one another” (1 Cor 11:33, LSB) when the Lord's Supper is observed. The church is forbidden from taking this meal divided from one another. The coronavirus pandemic that impacted the world in 2020 led many churches to practice weekly worship online, barring members from attending in person. The Church of England even denied access to church buildings for their clergy.281 This led some churches to take the Eucharist over the internet in a “virtual communion,” with Baptists being encouraged to consume their own elements at home in front of their screens, in contrast to Anglicans, Methodists, and Roman Catholics.282 Different responses to the Baptist home participation included abstaining from the Lord’s Supper or spectating as a minister observed the sacrament online, emphasizing a more active observing of the minister “spiritually” while the clergy alone participates. Duane H. Larson suggests that only humanity is bound by the physical, but the Lord’s Supper is boundless, and the Christian is incarnated with Christ no matter the visible or invisible walls. 283 In this sense, the Eucharist has always been virtual.284 Larson concludes that in times of crisis, it is not pastorally caring to force the congregation to abstain from communion, for God’s people need the manna in the wilderness of this world. It is normative and better to receive the communion meal together in the church, but in times of trial, even virtual communion is needed for the continued formation of faith.285 281 Andrew Village, “Attitude toward Virtual Communion in Relation to Church Tradition during the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United Kingdom,” Journal of Empirical Theology 25, (2022): 97. 282 Village, “Attitude toward Virtual Communion,” 98. 283 Duane H. Larson, “Should Christians Practice ‘Virtual Communion’ in Time of a Plague?” Dialogue 59, no. 2 (2020): 57. 284 Ibid. 285 Ibid. 89 Kristian C. Kohler argues that the Lord’s Supper is celebrated where the baptized gather together, and if that happens to be in digital space, it is acceptable.286 This approach is contrasted with the Westminster Confession of Faith (29:3), which restricts the giving of communion to those not physically present in the congregation.287 Perhaps there is a better way than “virtual communion,” reflected in the last point of this Literature Review. The Ministry to Those Absent from Worship In the First Apology, Justin describes the ministry of the deacons following worship. He writes that “the deacons carry it [the Eucharist] away to those brothers not present.” 288 Next, he notes that an offering is taken up to help all who are in need, including orphans, widows, the sick, the needy, the imprisoned, and foreigners in the church.289 Schaff records that the deacons of this era carried the consecrated elements to the sick and the believers in prison.290 It seems the offering and carrying of the Eucharist to those not in attendance were interconnected, with the funds collected used to assist them.291 The church father Tertullian writes that in his community, the funds collected at the Eucharist were used: for the support and burial of the poor, for children who are without their parents and means of subsistence, for aged men who are confined to the house; likewise, for 286 Kristian C. Kohler, “Virtual Communion: Assembly, Digital Space, and Eucharistic Celebration.” Currents in Theology and Mission 50, no. 1 (2023): 34. 287 The Westminster Confession of Faith 29.3. “The Lord Jesus hath, in this ordinance, appointed His ministers to declare His word of institution to the people, to pray, and bless the elements of bread and wine, and thereby to set them apart from a common to an holy use; and to take and break the bread, to take the cup, and (they communicating also themselves) to give both to the communicants; but to none who are not then present in the congregation.” 288 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 65.5. 289 Ibid., 67.6. 290 Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 239. 291 Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of Christianity, Volume 1: to A.D. 1500 (Peabody, MA: Prince Press, 1997), 200. 90 shipwrecked sailors, and for any in the mines, on islands or in prisons. Provided only it be for the sake of fellowship with God, they become entitled to loving and protective care for their confession.292 This approach described by Tertullian and Justin could address how to minister to those who are chronically sick, in need, and during a future pandemic. In a pandemic, church leaders could bring the elements of the virtual service to homebound people rather than relying on a virtual communion. Stewart suggests another modern application of this principle: collecting goods for local food banks as a church congregation observes a congregational meal.293 A regular deacon offering could also be designated for this ministry. The literature on Justin Martyr and his description of carrying the Eucharist to those absent from worship is lacking and could be explored further. Theological Foundations In chapter 66 of First Apology, Justin Martyr grounds his understanding of the Eucharist in what he calls the “remembrances” (ἀπομνημονεύμασιν) composed and “handed down” (παρέδωκαν) by the apostles and specifies them as “Gospels” (εὐαγγέλια). 294 These are often called the institution narratives for the Lord’s Supper, found in the Synoptic Gospels (Matt 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:15-20). However, Jesus’ command to “do this in remembrance of me,” continuing this meal in His memory, is only recorded in two passages of Scripture: Luke 22:19 and 1 Corinthians 11:24-25.295 Justin alludes to this statement by Luke and recorded by Paul when he writes that the apostles handed down “what Jesus commanded them” 292 Tertullian, Apologeticus. 39.6. Arbesmann et al., 99. 293 Stewart, Breaking Bread: The Emergence of Eucharist and Agape, 290. 294 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 295 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 28. 91 (παρέδωκαν ἐντετάλθαι αὐτοῖς τὸν Ἰησοῦν).296 To truly understand Justin’s theology of the Lord’s Supper, it is critical to comprehend the doctrine expressed by the Gospel writers, particularly Luke, as well as Paul’s explanation and interpretation. While the foundation narratives of communion are found in the Synoptic Gospels, Paul received his tradition of communion directly from the Lord (1 Cor 11:23) in the 30s or 40s. He wrote to the Corinthians in the early 50s,297 making his account the oldest written and the earliest record of any words of Jesus.298 Like Justin, Paul also grounds his account of the Lord’s Table in Jesus’ command to “Do this in remembrance of Me” (1 Cor 11:24, LSB). Paul founded the Corinthian church in Acts 18 (c. A.D. 49-51), and 1 Corinthians can be dated approximately three years later.299 While the Gospels seem to be the primary source for Justin, Paul’s letter is the only Scriptural content where one can observe the Lord’s Table practiced in a local church community. It is profitable to compare the situation in Corinth, the Gospel narratives, and Justin’s description to understand the theology of communion. 1 Corinthians 11 exemplifies that eating characterized the early Christian gatherings when the Corinthian church regularly met (11:17, 18, 20).300 The book of Acts also emphasized common meals known as “the breaking of the bread” in the church communities of Jerusalem, Asia Minor, and Syria.301 This was a regular 296 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 297 Mikael Winninge, “The Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor 11 and Luke 22: Traditions and Development” in The Eucharist: It’s Origin and Context – Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity Volumes 1-3, eds. David Hellom and Dieter Sanger (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 581, ProQuest. 298 Leon Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001), 157. 299 Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to The Corinthians, Revised Edition, The New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2014), 5-7. 300 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 30. 301 Ibid., 34. 92 practice of the church from its beginning, described as early as Acts 2:42, and it is addressed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 11 as he records the institution of the Lord’s Supper.302 The Background to the Lord’s Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 Understanding the background issues in the Corinthian congregation clarifies Paul’s discussion of the Lord’s Supper. Paul begins his discourse regarding communion (11:17-34) by stating twice, “I do not praise you” (11:17, LSB) and “I will not praise you” (11:22, LSB). There were problems in Corinth concerning how the church approached the Eucharist. Paul does not commend that which does not imitate Christ (11:1). In his letter, Paul had already addressed issues concerning eating, including whether a member could dine in a pagan temple, eat in a pagan neighbor’s house, or belong to a voluntary association whose meal included religious ceremonies to a deity or the emperor (1 Cor 8).303 Chapter 11 does not discuss gathering with outsiders to eat. Instead, it is the church community meal that is being addressed. It is when they “come together” (συνερχομένων) as a “church” (ἐκκλησίᾳ) that divisions manifest themselves (11:18, LSB). Justin also writes in the context of his local church gathering, when “all (πάντων) gather together (συνέλευσις) who are from towns or farms.”304 There is a problem with the Corinthians’ eating and drinking, with terms related to these two themes referenced seven times in five verses.305 To correct wrongful observation of the 302 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 159. 303 Paul Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth” in The Eucharist: Its Origin And Context – Sacred Meal, Communal Meal, Table Fellowship in Late Antiquity, Early Judaism, and Early Christianity Volumes 1-3, eds. David Hellom and Dieter Sanger (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2017), 556, ProQuest. 304 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.3. 305 J.A. Myers, “Lord’s Supper” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, eds. Scot McKnight, Lynn H. Cohick, and Nijay K. Gupta (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2023), 1738, ProQuest. Myers notes the phrases used in 11:20-22 include eating (1 Cor 11:20, 21, 22), drinking (1 Cor 11:22), supper (1 Cor 11:21), hungry (1 Cor 11:21), and drunk (1 Cor 11:21). 93 Lord’s Supper and apparent divisions (11:18), Paul reminds them of its significance by repeating the actual words of the institution by Jesus (11:23-26),306 words that are very similar to what was used in Justin’s church community. The church assembly was to celebrate the Lord’s Supper in the same way Jesus shared His final meal with His disciples.307 While they may call their meal the Lord’s Supper, it failed to display the most rudimentary meaning of the meal.308 Paul’s Source for the Lord’s Supper Paul writes, “For I received from the Lord that which I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus in the night in which He was being betrayed took bread” (1 Corinthians 11:23, LSB). Paul grounds the Lord’s Supper in what he “received” (παρέλαβον). Later in history, rabbis used this term to speak of traditions received from Mount Sinai or Moses.309 Paul writes that his communion was “from the Lord” (ἀπὸ τοῦ κυρίου), which Gordon Fee understands to refer to Jesus as the ultimate source of the tradition rather than a personal and direct reception.310 Simon Kistemaker suggests that Paul received this from the agency of the other apostles, like when he spent fifteen days in the company of Peter (Gal 1:18).311 In contrast to these suggestions by Fee and Kistemaker, a direct revelation from Jesus can be argued based on two points. First, Paul used the emphatic pronoun “I” (Ἐγὼ), which favors 306 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 604. 307 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 568. 308 Mark Taylor, 1 Corinthians: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture, vol. 28, The New American Commentary (Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2014), 52, ProQuest. 309 Craig S. Keener, The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic: An Imprint of InterVarsity Press, 2014), 484 Logos. Keener refers to Mishnah Pe’ah 2:6; Eduyyot 8:7 and Yadayim 4:3. 310 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 607. 311 Simon J. Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, New Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1993), 393. Many scholars believe that “Paul has some form of either an oral or a written Jesus tradition” that he gave the Corinthian church. Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1746. 94 Paul receiving this as a direct revelation from Jesus.312 Second, Paul uses an aorist tense verb to state he had already “delivered” (παρέδωκα) this teaching to the Corinthian congregation. The combination of “received” and “delivered” is almost identical in 1 Corinthians 15 (LSB) when he speaks of that which the church had “received” (παρελάβετε, 15:1) and he “delivered” (παρέδωκα, 15:3) to them concerning the gospel. The grouping of these two words probably describes the Jewish practice of handing over tradition.313 Paul speaks in Galatians about his receiving the gospel message directly through a revelation of Jesus Christ (1:12). It can be argued that with the use of the emphatic ἐγώ and utilization of these two verbs, Paul received his teaching on the Lord’s Supper similarly, via direct revelation. Jesus could have revealed this understanding of the Lord’s Supper to Paul during his conversion or in a subsequent vision from Christ.314 Again, Justin’s Lord’s Supper finds its source, similarly, in what “the Apostles . . . handed down” from “Jesus.”315 Later in chapter 67, Justin notes the epistemological source of his doctrine of the Eucharist and Sunday worship was ultimately Jesus, who “appeared to his Apostles and disciples and taught them these very things, which we have delivered to you.”316 Problems Identified in Observing Communion “Therefore when you meet together in the same place, it is not to eat the Lord’s Supper, for in your eating each one takes his own supper first, and one is hungry and another is drunk. For do you not have houses in which to eat and drink? Or do you despise the church of God and 312 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 157. Morris points out that many direct revelations were given to the Apostle (Acts 18:9, 22:18, 23:11, 27:23-25; 2 Cor 12:7; Gal 1:12, 2:2). 313 Winninge, “The Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor 11 and Luke 22,” 582. Fee notes that these are “technical terms from Paul’s Jewish heritage for the transmission of religious instruction.” Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 607. 314 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 393. 315 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 316 Ibid., Apologia i 67.8. 95 shame those who have nothing? What shall I say to you? Shall I praise you? In this I will not praise you” (1 Cor 11:20–22, LSB). The fact that this communion is “the Lord’s Supper” (1 Cor 11:20, LSB) with its origin in “the Lord” (1 Cor 11:23, LSB) emphasizes it should only be participated in as Jesus directed.317 This may imply that the Corinthian meal did not match what Jesus gave His disciples in the Gospel narratives. Kistemaker notes that this language reminds the Corinthians that they are guests at Jesus’ table. If they partake in communion without loving their fellow church members, they dishonor the Lord.318 Paul contrasts the self-preoccupied eating of many Corinthians, “taking his own supper first” and others “drunk” (1 Cor 11:21, LSB), with their pretensions to be eating with Jesus.319 They were abusing the meal, shaming the poor in the church who had nothing, and dividing the congregation. The verb for “taking” or “goes ahead with” (ESV) is προλαμβάνει, and could be understood as an intensive for “devour” or “consume.”320 Myers writes that the way one understands the verb leads to the issue in Corinth: Either the rich eat their food before the poor or the way one eats is greedy or selfish.321 The first century was a period without church buildings. Services would have been held in the homes of church members, probably of a wealthier social status, since only these homes could accommodate the full congregation.322 Mikael Winninge suggests that the homeowner where the church gathering was hosted and those of higher social 317 Derek Prime, Opening up 1 Corinthians, Opening Up Commentary (Leominister, UK: Day One Publications, 2005), 102, Logos. 318 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 392. 319 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 34. 320 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1738. 321 Ibid. 322 I. H. Marshall, “Lord’s Supper” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 571. 96 status ate more and better food in a private meal separate from the rest of the church community (1 Cor 11:33-34), causing the division.323 The wealthier members of the church community would eat and drink in the dining room, while the poor in the church body would be left out in the atrium without sufficient food and drink.324 J.A. Myers counters this view by pointing out the unsustainability of one person providing a year’s worth of meals to a small church community.325 Meyers suggests that each member of the church community may have brought food with them, potluck style, and then distributed the food based on social status, causing problems.326 Amiel Drimbe categorizes these interpretations as a “social reading”327 of chapter 11 rather than a theological one, founded in the formal meals of Greco-Roman society being marked by boundaries. These boundaries were reflected in social stratification instead of social equality and segregation instead of inclusion. Meyers details the social expectations of a contemporary meal of Paul’s day: One was sat according to one’s status, with the most desired location being near the host or other higher-status patrons. If one’s status was not very high, one might be sat farther down or even in another room entirely. Location was not the only way to differentiate status. The best food and wine were served to those further up the social ladder, while those of lower honor were served lesser food and cheaper wine.328 323 Winninge, “The Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor 11 and Luke 22,” 583. J.A. Myers notes that the discovery of the villa at Anaploga in the 1970s would be the kind of upperclass home that could allow such social eating and division. “The villa would have allowed for around forty to fifty people to gather at once provided that the atrium was used for overflow. The high-status and wealthy friends of a homeowner such as Stephanas (1 Cor 16:15) would have dined with him in the triclinium, while those of lesser status would have resided in the atrium.” Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1732. 324 Thomas R. Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2018), 1297z, ProQuest. Nijay Gupta notes that the dining room of the home was known as the triclinium, and part of the goal of attending these dinner parties would be to be “seen eating and drinking with certain people” as a privileged guest in the triclinium, closest to the food. Gupta, Strange Religion, 128 325 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1737. 326 Ibid., 1737-1738. 327 Amiel Drimbe, The Church of Antioch and the Eucharistic Traditions (ca. 35-130 CE) (Germany: Mohr Siebeck Tübingen, 2020). 24-26, ProQuest. 328 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1734. 97 Applied to Corinth, this would mean wealthy members of the church treated the poorer members of the congregation shamefully at the table, giving them lesser quality food and even leaving them only the meal’s leftovers.329 Class and wealth separation, common in the first century’s social gatherings, opposed the communion meal’s central meaning. This could be why Paul ends this chapter commanding the church to “wait for one another” when they “come together to eat” (11:33, LSB). Instead of unity at the table, the problem is “one takes his own supper first” (11:21, LSB). This may have been due to the poor church members and church members who were slaves getting off from work late and having no control over their personal schedules.330 Historian Nadya Williams notes that the Greek symposium and the Roman convivium would have highly influenced a prominent city in the Greek world like Corinth.331 The Greek values found in the symposium, an aristocratic drinking party, and the Roman values of the convivium banquet had impacted the Corinthian meals.332 Paul’s criticism combines the basest features of both, with the toleration of communal drunkenness found in the symposium and the serving of food based on each guest’s status found in the convivium.333 Meyers summarizes this view by arguing that the Corinthian church indiscriminately embraced the Greco-Roman dining practices that divided the ancient world, and Paul is writing to refocus their meals.334 The cultural values of Corinth found in their meals “collide with the wisdom of the Cross” (1 Cor 329 Drimbe, The Church of Antioch and the Eucharistic Traditions, 24-26. 330 David E. Garland, 1 Corinthians (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2003) 424, ProQuest. 331 Williams, Cultural Christians in the Early Church, 32. 332 Ibid. 333 Ibid., 34. 334 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1731. Marshall summarizes that there was “over-indulgence on the part of the rich and feelings of envy on the part of the poor who were made to feel inferior (1 Cor 12:15).” Marshall, “Lord’s Supper,” 571. 98 1:18-25) and Jesus’ “loving sacrifice for others.”335 Their current practice of eating does nothing more than “shame” (καταισχύνετε) or “humiliate” (ESV) the poor (11:22) and does not practice the love of Jesus.336 To be a member of a city church in the Roman Empire would lead to celebrating the Lord’s table with individuals from higher social classes down to the lowest, including slaves.337 How a member celebrates the Lord’s Supper in their behavior and treatment of others is as important as the act of celebrating. A theological reading of this division could be tied back to 1 Corinthians 1, where factions were developing and following different leaders like Paul, Apollos, and Cephas (1 Cor 1:12-13). This could be the source of these groups dividing at the communion meal, called by Paul “factions” (11:19, LSB). In response to this division, Paul emphasized, “the cup” (τὸ ποτήριον) that was shared and “one bread” (τὸν ἄρτον) that was broken (1 Cor 10:16-17).338 This could also be why Paul commands the Corinthians to examine themselves before taking this meal in 11:28. Such examination would be for one to determine whether their actions would contribute to the building up of the community in unity or its breaking down of the church body.339 This may be why Paul earlier warned about the Corinthian celebrations. He cautioned the Corinthians to celebrate “not with old leaven, nor with the leaven of malice and wickedness, but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth” (1 Cor 5:8). Malice and wickedness would characterize divisive eating. In contrast, sincerity and truth would demonstrate the right participation in unity. 335 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 420. 336 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1297. 337 Williams, Cultural Christians in the Early Church, 35. 338 Ibid., 37. There could have been a similar spirit in Paul’s confrontation with Peter in Galatians 2 concerning table fellowship and the Jewish Christians not eating with the Gentiles during Paul’s stay at Antioch. 339 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 572. 99 In addressing the abuse in Corinth, Paul identifies both eating and drinking and expresses them in their extremes. Fee writes, “The one extreme is to receive nothing to eat, thus to ‘be hungry’; the other extreme is to be gorged on both food and wine, thus to ‘be drunk.’”340 The meal should be eaten together as a unified people, not separated via class distinctions and by how much food is eaten or wine is consumed. Fee concludes that a faithful Christian at the Lord’s Table should care for the needy and see the true meaning of the table as their unity in Christ.341 The meal should be about “communal participation in salvation with thanksgiving” instead of an “individual encounter for selfish consumption.”342 Earlier in 1 Corinthians, Paul made it explicitly clear that to sin against a weaker brother is to sin against Christ (1 Cor 8:12). So, this selfish and sinful behavior at the table must be corrected. This type of error in observing the Lord’s Table seems to be corrected in Justin’s church community. In chapter 67 of First Apology, as he records the worship service of his day, he addresses this very issue. Justin records: [T]hose who are prosperous contribute according to the choice that each one desires. Their contribution is brought to the leader and he aids the needy: orphans, widows, the sick, or needy for another reason, the imprisoned, and foreigners who are temporarily residing with us. In other words, the leader is to be the one who cares for all in need.343 Rather than selfish eating or shaming the poor, in Justin’s community, the Lord’s Table is used as a moment in worship to provide for the deprived and disadvantaged. The offering of Justin’s community could directly respond to and apply Paul’s correction of the Corinthian congregation. 340 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 601. 341 Ibid., 603. 342 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1739. 343 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.6. 100 The Institution of the Lord’s Supper “For I received from the Lord that which I also delivered to you, that the Lord Jesus in the night in which He was being betrayed took bread, and when He had given thanks, He broke it and said, ‘This is My body, which is for you. Do this in remembrance of Me.’ In the same way He took the cup also after supper, saying, ‘This cup is the new covenant in My blood; do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of Me’” (1 Corinthians 11:23-25, LSB). Paul grounds the Lord’s Supper historically on the night Jesus was betrayed (11:23), connecting his description of the Lord’s Table with the Synoptic Gospel narratives. This was the night Jesus ate His last meal with His disciples. The cultural and historical context of this meal clarifies the weight of Jesus’ words. All meals were important in the Greco-Roman world and were considered social and religious events.344 For the Jewish people, all meals were, in a sense, religious in that they were accompanied by the giving of thanks to God for the food.345 This is more heightened in that this is the Passover meal, one of the festivals of Israel. When the church comes together for the Lord’s Supper, it is a continuation of the Last Supper Jesus ate with His disciples, the Passover feast.346 Justin notes the theological significance of Passover in his Dialogue With Trypho, chapter 40. He writes, “The mystery of the lamb, then, which God ordered you to sacrifice as the Passover was truly a type of Christ, with whose blood the believers, in proportion to the strength of their faith, anoint their homes, that is, themselves.”347 It 344 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1731. Myers notes that religions like Judaism prioritized meals together as well the “various trade guilds that had different deities as their founding patrons.” He writes about the shared characteristics of these meals, including “a shared full meal, reclining around tables, a master of the ceremony to preside over the dinner, music, and prayer for a meal.” Ibid., 1733-1734. 345 Marshall, “Lord’s Supper,” 570. Marshall details this point. “Jewish daily meals began with a thanksgiving to God associated with the breaking of bread and concluded with a further thanksgiving. Festal meals on special occasions, including Sabbaths, other festivals and guest-meals, included wine (which was not drunk at ordinary daily meals). . . . At the Passover meal a more elaborate procedure was followed.” 346 Ibid., 608. 347 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 40.1. Halton, Dialogue with Trypho, 61. 101 is significant that immediately following his chapter on the Passover, interpreting the original feast as fulfilled in Christ and “his Passion on the Cross,”348 Justin discusses the Eucharist in chapter 41, making this connection. Lampe notes that the Passover (πάσχα) is later used by the Fathers to identify the Eucharist as a Christian Passover.349 There could be a theological reason for this historical connection. Paul reminds the Corinthians that Jesus instituted this meal while His enemies, including His disciple Judas, were planning His arrest and murder. This demonstrates Jesus’ self-giving love and contrasts with the Corinthian’s selfishness at meals celebrating the Lord’s Supper.350 In 1 Corinthians 11:25, the impression is that the bread was broken and shared during the Passover meal, with the cup taken at the end.351 Paul records the timing of the cup in the meal, detailing that Jesus took the cup “after supper” (LSB). Some commentators see this as a reference to the order of the Jewish Passover Seder and the use of multiple cups. In contrast, others perceive a reference to the Greco-Roman practice at the symposia, the after-meal drinking, speeches, and entertainment.352 While many commentaries find various elements of the modern Passover Seder parallel to the Gospel narratives, Winninge cautions that very little can be said with certainty about the ritual of celebrating the Passover meal in the first century. He concludes that it is wise to hesitate in finding parallels, for there is a danger in making anachronistic projections.353 Jesus’ death on the cross should be the focus of remembrance. Fee interprets the 348 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 40.3. 349 Lampe, “πάσχα” in A Patristic Greek Lexicon, 1049. 350 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1298a. 351 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 159. 352 Winninge, “The Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor 11 and Luke 22,” 595. Kistemaker suggests that there were four different cups at the Jewish Passover meal, and when Jesus took the cup, it was the third cup known as “the cup of blessing.” Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 396-397. 353 Ibid., 590. 102 statement “after supper” (11:25, LSB) to indicate that the Passover meal separated the bread and cup sayings, though this was not necessarily the Corinthians’ practice.354 The first action highlighted by Paul is that the Lord Jesus “took bread” (1 Cor 11:23, LSB) and then “given thanks” (εὐχαριστήσας, 1 Cor 11:24, LSB). The name often used for the Lord’s Supper, Eucharist, comes from “given thanks,” a plural participle.355 This is also the term (εὐχαριστία) Justin uses to name the Lord’s Supper.356 Matthew and Mark differ slightly in that they record Jesus “took bread” and “after a blessing” he broke it (Matt 26:26; Mark 14:22, LSB). “Blessing” (εὐλογήσας) can be defined as “to ask God to bestow divine favor on” verbally seeking His “benefit.”357 Justin also records the church giving “praise” or “blessing” (εὐλογοῦμεν) “the Creator of all through His Son Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit” in the regular worship service.358 Justin does not record Jesus blessing the bread but instead follows Luke and Paul’s wording. Luke writes harmoniously with Paul and notes, “he had taken some bread and given thanks” (Luke 22:19, LSB). “Given thanks” (εὐχαριστήσας)359 is congruent with an ordinary Jewish meal, in which the head of the house would bless the bread, break it, and give it to those at the table.360 This language of giving thanks and blessing echoes other events, like Jesus’ 354 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 613. 355 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1740. 356 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.1. 357 Johannes P. Louw et al., s.v. “εὐλογέω,” 2 vols, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, 2nd ed. (New York: NY: United Bible Societies, 1989), 441, Logos. 358 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.2. 359 Justin uses εὐχαριστήσαντα. Apologia i 66.3. 360 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 608-609. 103 feeding of the five thousand, recorded in all four Gospels, where He took bread, looked up to heaven, gave thanks, and broke it.361 There is a difference here between Paul’s account and the Synoptic Gospels. Matthew’s Gospel records that Jesus took the bread and “giving it to the disciples” (26:26, LSB), while Mark and Luke record that He “gave it to them” (καὶ ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς, Luke 22:19; Mark 14:22). Justin also records this detail when he writes that Jesus “shared it only with them” (καὶ μόνοις αὐτοῖς μεταδοῦναι).362 Paul omits this expression. Kistemaker suggests that Paul omitted these phrases because he wanted to provide a general context for everyone who partakes of the bread, not just the original disciples.363 An important issue in properly understanding the meaning of the elements is Jesus’ words used to institute the meal. In 1 Corinthians 11:24 (LSB), Jesus speaks over the bread, saying, “This is my body.” Matthew 26:26, Mark 22:22, and Luke 22:19 all have the exact verbiage. In Matthew 26:28 and Mark 14:24, Jesus used the same language for the cup, stating, “This is my blood” (LSB). Luke’s language of “in the same way” (ύτως, 22:20) confirms that the bread and cup have a corresponding implication. Justin’s account also follows Luke when he writes, “And in the same way (ὁμοίως), he took the cup.”364 This suggests that Jesus adopted the same practice with the cup as with the bread.365 361 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 394. This is found in Matthew 14:19; Mark 6:41; Luke 9:16; and John 6:11. 362 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 363 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 393. 364 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 365 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 396. 104 The Presence of Christ We partake of these things not as ordinary bread nor an ordinary drink, but in the way Jesus Christ our Savior through the word of God was made incarnate and took upon Him flesh and blood for our deliverance. So, we were instructed that this Eucharistized food by the prayer of His word is the blood and flesh of Jesus who was made flesh. This food nourishes our flesh and blood by transformation.366 Justin understands that in some way, when the bread and cup are “Eucharistized” by the prayer of Jesus’ word, it “is the blood and flesh of Jesus who was made flesh.”367 Just as, in Jesus’ incarnation, God the Son entered human flesh and blood for mankind’s salvation, Justin states that there is a union of Jesus with the elements at the Eucharist.368 Justin believes something to have happened at this moment, and in the same way both Luke and Paul record, the elements are Jesus’ flesh and blood. Justin then explains that this understanding comes from Jesus’ words, “this is my body” and “this is my blood.”369 Fee argues that the language of “This is my body” (1 Cor 11:24, LSB) is Semitic imagery in heightened form.370 Fee contends that Jesus does not address later theological interpretations like transubstantiation or how Jesus is present with the elements of bread or wine. In 11:28, Paul calls the element “bread” (LSB) when the participant receives it, not the body of Jesus. This seems to indicate it is still natural bread. Fee concludes that instead of dealing with the presence of Christ, Jesus is reinterpreting the meaning of the bread in terms of His death.371 Taylor 366 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.2 367 Ibid., 66.2. 368 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 20. 369 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.3. 370 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 608. 371 Ibid., 609. Fee continues, “It lies quite beyond both Jesus’ intent and the framework within which he and the disciples lived to imagine that some actual change took place, or was intended to take place, in the bread itself. Such a view could only have arisen in the church at a much later stage when Greek modes of thinking had rather thoroughly replaced Semitic ones.” 105 comments that the word “is” (ἐστιν) in this context means “to signify or represent” and is a “rich and meaningful symbol that involves actual realities.”372 The spiritual presence of Jesus in communion can be demonstrated in 1 Corinthians 10. Paul first discusses the nation of Israel and her sacrificial system. He writes that those “who eat the sacrifices” are “sharers in the altar” (1 Cor 10:18, LSB). N.T. Wright clarifies that Paul is referring to those in ethnic Israel who eat the sacrificial meat offered in the temple and are “sharing in the very life of Israel’s God” as He “meets with his people.”373 In 1 Cor 10:20-21, Paul records that how one eats at the Lord’s Table is congruent to how pagans believe they dine at the table of their pseudo-deities.374 If one shares in an idolatrous feast, they are brought into a relationship with demons, and those who share in the Lord’s Supper are brought into a relationship with the Lord, who is present as host.375 Paul later warns that those who do not take the Lord’s Supper rightly are “disciplined by the Lord” (1 Cor 11:32, LSB), demonstrating His presence at the meal and the spiritual nature of the communion. There is a spiritual presence of Christ at the Lord’s Table, but this is not the emphasis of 11:24. Noted Anglican J. C. Ryle, in his treatise on the real presence of Christ, gives four points to affirm Jesus’ real spiritual presence at communion. First, he argues from the doctrine of omnipresence that God is everywhere (Job 34:21-22; Prov 15:3; Jer 32:19).376 Second, he argues that Jesus is really and truly present spiritually with His people wherever they go, dwelling in 372 Taylor, 1 Corinthians, 55. 373 N. T. Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God, Christian Origins and the Question of God, vol. 4 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2013), 1345, Logos. 374 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 570. 375 Marshall, “Lord’s Supper,” 573. 376 J. C. Ryle, Knots Untied: Being Plain Statements on Disputed Points in Religion (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2016), 214. 106 their hearts (Matt 28:20; John 14:23; Eph 3:17).377 Third, he recalls Jesus’ promise that He is present wherever His believing people meet in His name (Matt 18:20).378 Fourth, there is a real spiritual presence of Christ promised to believers in special times of trouble and difficulty in their lives (Ps 23:4; Dan 3:25; Acts 18:9-10; 23:11; 2 Tim 4:16-17).379 While Jesus is spiritually present at the Lord’s Supper, Ryle argues against a real bodily presence. Jesus’ physical body was made just as every other person in the incarnation, yet without sin. Ryle writes, “When our Lord rose again from the dead, He rose with a real human body,—a body which could not be in two places at once,—a body of which the angels said, ‘He is not here, but is risen’ (Luke 24:6).”380 Jesus’ real bodily presence is now in heaven at the right hand of God, not locally present in the bread and wine at the Lord’s Supper.381 He concludes, “if the body with which our blessed Lord ascended into heaven can be in heaven, and on Earth, and ten thousand communion tables at the same time, it cannot be a real human body at all.”382 Jesus’ Reinterpretation of the Elements As Fee noted, it can be argued that the words of institution by Jesus are a reinterpretation of the elements in terms of His death. The phrase “the Lord’s death” (τὸν θάνατον τοῦ κυρίου) is even placed first by Paul in the Greek main clause for emphasis.383 During Passover celebrations, 377 J. C. Ryle, Knots Untied, 219-221. 378 Ibid., 221-222. Ryle states, “The smallest gathering of true Christians for the purposes of prayer or praise, or holy conference, or reading God’s word, is sanctified by the best of company. The great or rich or noble may not be there, but the King of kings himself is present, and angels look on with reverence.” 379 Ibid., 223-225. 380 Ibid., 227. Ryle also notes that if “our Lord was actually holding His own body in His hands, when He said of the bread, “This is My body,” His body must have been a different body to that of ordinary men.” Ibid., 187. 381 Ibid., 227, 230. 382 Ibid., 231. 383 Taylor, 1 Corinthians, 147. 107 the host of the meal would retell the story of the exodus and interpret the different foods and actions of the meal in terms of the story.384 Wright argues that the disciples would have understood Jesus’ words as “reinterpreting the meal in relation to himself, claiming that the kingdom-events about to occur were the climax of the long history which looked back to the exodus from Egypt as its formative moment.”385 In favor of this is the gender of the pronouns used by Paul in 11:24-25. In 11:24, “this” (τοῦτο) is a neuter pronoun, not a masculine pronoun as it would be if it referred to the masculine word for bread (ἄρτον).386 The fact “this” is neuter could lead to the interpretation that the pronoun may refer to the whole action of the Lord’s Supper, as the second “this” (τοῦτο) in verse 25 does, “do this in remembrance.”387 Paul’s conclusion in 11:26 is that eating and drinking results in the proclamation of the death of the Lord. The physical body of Jesus, nailed to the cross, dying as an atonement for sin, is the message of the meal. This grounds the meaning in the narrative of the Gospels, and the reader might see the meal “as a participation in Jesus’ risen life (Luke 24:35) as in his death.”388 Instead of selfish division, the Corinthians should emphasize the self-giving sacrifice of Jesus. To “proclaim” (1 Cor 11:26, LSB) Jesus’ death and the good news of their salvation is not funeral observance language.389 This is language of agreement, and the unified act of taking the meal 384 N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God, vol. 2 (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1996), 559. 385 Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 559. 386 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 158. 387 Ibid. 388 McGowan, Ancient Christian Worship, 33. 389 Garland writes concerning “Do this in remembrance of me.” (11:24-25): “It does not mean that the Lord’s Supper is a memorial meal for a dearly departed hero, which only cherishes the memory of Jesus. The currency of memorial feasts in Greco-Roman life reveals that this kind of meal would not have seemed unusual, but these feasts do not provide the appropriate backdrop for interpreting what Paul means.” Garland, 1 Corinthians, 429. 108 together makes the Corinthian church one.390 Justin also understands Sunday as the day of worship because “they crucified him [Jesus] on the day before Saturday, and on the day after Saturday, which is Sunday, he appeared to his Apostles and disciples and taught them these very things.”391 The observance of the Eucharist on Sunday is connected to Jesus’ death and Resurrection. He also made this connection earlier when he described the Eucharist. He writes that the incarnation of the Savior was “for our deliverance.”392 Reflecting and meditating on Jesus’ death should be the regular habit of God’s people as they observe the bread and cup. Myers concludes that this command to remember requires active, obedient participation, “bringing together the past event of the meal, the present practice of it, and the future consummation it entails.”393 This is not to be reduced to a mental recall but must involve the whole person, shaping and changing the life of the participant.394 Garland summarizes that the Lord’s Supper was given to “convey to every participant that he or she is somebody precious to God. The Corinthians’ meal communicated to some that they were worthless nobodies.”395 Jesus’ reinterpretation of the Passover elements of bread and wine must determine how the Corinthians approached this meal. The Meaning of the Elements The meaning of the elements of the bread and the cup has a participatory value for all who receive them. Paul continues repeating the words of Jesus concerning the bread in 11:24 390 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 611-613. 391 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.7. 392 Ibid., 66.2. 393 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1741. 394 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1298b-1298c. 395 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 426. 109 (LSB), “which is for you.” Only Luke has a similar “given for you” (Luke 22:19, LSB). Fee sees this as an adaptation of the Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53:12 (LSB), who “bore the sin of many” and interprets it as an invitation to participate in the meaning and benefits of Jesus’ death.396 It emphasizes the vicarious work of Christ for the church.397 “For you” reminds the church that by the power of God the Holy Spirit, the partakers of the bread and cup are brought together by faith into fellowship with Jesus and experience His sacred presence and power.398 The giving of Jesus’ body contrasts with the selfish behavior of the Corinthians in their assembly.399 John Barclay comments that when the gathered church hears the words “for you,” they should hear “the value of each member, for whom Christ died,” and “cultural prejudices concerning ethnic origin, educational attainment, age, and class should fall away.”400 They need to take this meal in the same spirit in which Jesus gave His body for each member of the congregation. The church father John Chrysostom understood Paul’s application of Jesus’ language by asking his congregation, “He gave His Body equally, but dost not thou give so much as the common bread equally?”401 The Corinthians were guilty of sinful participation and needed to be reminded of the participatory value of the elements for all who take the bread and cup. This point is seen in the surrounding context of chapter 11. 1 Corinthians 10 emphasizes that the bread is a sharing in the body of Christ (10:16) and then applies it to the physical bread, 396 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 610. Fee also sees the language used in the Synoptic Gospels for the cup, “poured out for many” and “poured out for you” as a reference to the Suffering Servant of Isaiah (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20). Ibid., 614. 397 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 158. 398 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 395. 399 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 429. 400 John M. G. Barclay, Paul and the Power of Grace (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2020), 135, ProQuest. 401 John Chrysostom, Homiliae in epistulam I ad Corinthios 27. John Chrysostom, “On the First Epistle of St. Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians,” 161. 110 which is one, and the body of Christ, which is one (10:17). A proper participation in the Lord’s Supper brings unity in the people of God to the table. This is supported by chapter 12, where Paul contends that the body of Christ is a community of people with various spiritual gifts, and each part of the body is indispensable.402 N.T. Wright notes that the purpose of this meal was to create intimacy between Jesus and His people and was designed “to express the unity, solidarity, and holiness of the community.”403 There is a unity within the body of Christ with those who bear the Lord’s name and eat His meal. For Paul, taking the Lord’s Supper requires “communal discernment” that includes “taking stock of the treatment of Christ’s body, the church.”404This is a table that all Christians share equally in unity and love. In 1 Corinthians 11:25 (LSB), Paul speaks concerning the cup, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood.” Luke 22:20 (LSB) is identical but adds that the cup “poured out for you is the new covenant in My blood.” Matthew 26:28 (LSB) records, “For this is My blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for forgiveness of sins,” and Mark 14:24 (LSB), “This is My blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many.” The “new covenant in my blood” of Luke and Paul refers to the prophecy of Jeremiah 31:31. The prophet Jeremiah records the words of Yahweh. “Behold, days are coming,” declares Yahweh, “when I will cut a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah” (LSB). In contrast, Matthew and Mark’s “blood of the covenant” could allude to Exodus 24:8 (LSB),405 which states, “So Moses took the blood and sprinkled it on the people and said, 402 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 569. 403 Wright, Paul And the Faithfulness of God, 1344. 404 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1741. 405 Winninge, “The Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor 11 and Luke 22,” 596. 111 ‘Behold the blood of the covenant, which Yahweh has cut with you in accordance with all these words.’” The original covenant at Mount Sinai in Exodus 24 was established in blood and could be an intentional contrast of Jesus with His death and that covenant.406 The covenant of Exodus 24 was between Yahweh and ethnic Israel, marking them as God’s people. In contrast, the New Covenant of Jesus is between Christ and the unified community of the church, a sign they are His people. Rather than the blood of burnt offerings and young bulls sprinkled over the people to ratify the covenant (Ex 24:5-8), it will be the blood of Jesus “poured out” (Matt 26:28; Mark 14:24; Luke 22:20, LSB) that establishes this covenant and brings “forgiveness of sins” (Matt 26:28, LSB). In Dialogue With Trypho, Justin understands Yahweh making the New Covenant “for a light to the nations” and that “through the name of the crucified Jesus Christ, men have turned to God, leaving behind them idolatry and other sinful practices.”407 Justin considers Jesus the embodiment of both “the New Covenant” and “the New Law” for those who “from every nation await the blessings of God.”408 Justin describes the Eucharist being given to the new convert immediately following their baptism, demonstrating the validity of the New Covenant only for those in Christ. Only after regeneration does one participate in Jesus’ body and blood.409 In Jeremiah 31:31-34, the New Covenant is contrasted with the covenant of Moses, which Israel broke. The writer of Hebrews states that this is a better covenant based on better promises (Heb 8:6). Hebrews continues that Jesus’ blood was shed once for all, unlike the 406 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 570. 407 Justin Martyr, Dialogus cum Tryphone 11.4. Halton, Dialogue with Trypho, 21. 408 Ibid. 409 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 65.1-5. 112 sacrificial system of the Old Testament (Heb 9:26; 10:10). Leon Morris summarizes the significance of the New Covenant when he writes, “The whole Jewish system is replaced by the Christ, and everything centers on the death of the Lord; it is that death which establishes the new covenant.”410 Tremper Longman highlights the fact that covenants often had signs associated with them, such as the Noahic covenant and the rainbow (Gen 9:13), the Abrahamic covenant and circumcision (Gen 17:11), and the Mosaic covenant and the Sabbath (Ex 31:13, 17).411 This New Covenant demonstrates the great return from exile for which Israel has longed and the forgiveness of sins,412 just like the first Passover was a redemption from exile in Egypt. The cup is the outward sign of the New Covenant ratified by Jesus shedding His blood on the Cross. Regular Participation in the Lord’s Supper In the next section of 1 Corinthians 11, there is an allusion to the regular use of the Lord’s Supper in a church congregation. Paul records these words in 11:24-25, and they appear again in Luke 22:19. In these passages, Jesus commands, “Do this in remembrance of Me” (LSB). Fee suggests these words are omitted in the other Gospels because such a command is implicit in the continuation of the supper itself.413 The verb “do” (ποιεῖτε, 11:24) is in the present tense, active voice, imperative mood, so that this command could be rendered, “Keep on doing this.”414 It should be the normative practice of the church when they come together to take the communion meal, and this could 410 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 159. 411 Tremper Longman III, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Understanding the Bible Commentary Series, eds. W. Ward Gasque, Robert L. Hubbard Jr., and Robert K. Johnston (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2012), 13, Logos. 412 Wright, Jesus And the Victory of God, 560, 563. 413 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 611. Duff suggests that this language may have its foundation in Greco-Roman meals that were held to commemorate a dead founder or benefactor, like a remembrance meal on a famous person’s birthday. Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 594. 414 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 159. 113 speak to the regular observance of the Lord’s Table in the Corinthian gatherings. In Corinth, the church collected money as an offering on the first day of the week (1 Cor 16:2), implying this is when the church regularly met. In Acts 20:7 (LSB), the sacred historian records that “on the first day of the week” the church was “gathered together to break bread.” This demonstrates that this was not exclusively a Corinthian practice. Justin, in his description of the worship gathering in chapter 67, also records the weekly receiving of the Eucharist. He writes, "Sunday is the day when we all make this common assembly.”415 Justin’s order of service described in this chapter includes the “reading of the remembrances of the Apostles” or the “writing of the Prophets,” which is the first reference in Christian literature to a liturgical reading of the Gospels.416 This is followed by verbal instruction and the leader challenging the congregation to imitate what was read. Third is public prayer together as a congregation, which Justin elaborates on earlier in 13.2 as thanksgiving to God “in hymns and speech.”417 This is followed by the weekly receiving of bread, wine, and water in the Eucharist, shared with each one in attendance by the deacons. Last, an offering was taken to help those in need. Justin records the Lord’s Table as integral to the regular liturgy of weekly worship for Christians. The Purpose of Paul’s Teaching “For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes” (1 Corinthians 11:26, LSB). Why did Paul give this account of the original institution of the Lord’s Supper? These words are not found in the Synoptic accounts. “For” 415 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.7. 416 Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 151. 417 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 13.2. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 29. 114 introduces the reasoning behind Paul’s writing. The Corinthians meal has lost its original intent, and Paul calls on the church to correctly observe it.418 Their Agape meals had incited division in the church, but they must now find unity in Christ’s body and blood with faithful participation, proclaiming the death of the Lord. The bread and the cup point to the Lord’s death in an equivalent manner. The phrase “as often as” implies a frequently repeated action. The Lord’s Supper is not to be an annual Christian Passover observance but a regularly repeated meal in the church.419 Paul introduces this verse as a liturgical element, and it indicates the habitual celebration of the meal in the gatherings of the Corinthians.420 As often as it is observed, this meal proclaims the death of the Lord until He comes (1 Cor 11:26). The death of Jesus was not the end for the church, and this reminds the Corinthians each time they participate that there is a future work of Christ at His return. Morris quotes Robertson and Plummer, saying that “proclaim” (καταγγέλλετε) means the Lord’s Supper is “an acted sermon, an acted proclamation of the death which it commemorates.”421 When Jesus gave the words of institution, He was proclaiming His death. In the same way, when a minister expounds the Word at the giving of the communion meal, reading Jesus’ words of institution, they do the same. When the worshipers partake of the bread and cup, the worshipers proclaim the significance of Jesus’ death silently.422 This makes the Lord’s 418 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 616. 419 Ibid., 614. Fee quotes C. K. Barrett, who notes that the phrase has a “limiting effect. Christians must do this not every time they have a meal, but whenever they drink wine. Bread was always available; in ordinary households . . . wine was not.” C. K. Barrett, A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians, HNTC (New York, NY: 1968), 269. The original Passover was commanded to be on the fourteenth of the Hebrew month Nisan (Lev 23:4-8). 420 Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 1746. 421 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 160. 422 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 398. 115 Supper a standing provision against the forgetfulness of man concerning the Lord’s death.423 This is where the focus of the Corinthian communion must be found. It should be noted that eating and drinking are what Paul emphasizes in 11:26. The words of institution are critical to understanding the Lord’s Supper. Yet, it is not the words of Jesus, but “eating” and “drinking” that are mentioned five times in 11:26-29.424 The actions of the Corinthians, in how they treat one another and eat the meal, will demonstrate the Lord’s death to one another. This could recall the night of Jesus’ betrayal when Jesus washed His disciples’ feet (John 13:12-15) and commanded His followers to love one another as He loved them (John 13:34-35). The Lord’s Supper could be categorized as “inaugurated eschatology, looking both back and forwards.”425 Jesus is spiritually present in the meal, yet He also will return bodily, just as He gave His life bodily on the cross. This is what is meant by “You proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes” (1 Cor 11:26, LSB). An equivalent understanding is found in the communion prayer in the Didache, which ends with the Aramaic Maranatha, meaning “O Lord, come!”426 While Justin does not deal with the eschatological dimensions of the Lord’s Table in Chapters 65-67, he does explain his view of the second coming earlier in the First Apology. He writes, “He [Jesus] will come from heaven with glory with His angelic host; when also He will 423 Ryle, Knots Untied, 186. 424 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 430. 425 Wright, Paul And the Faithfulness of God, 1347. 426 Didache 10:6. O’Loughlin, The Didache: A Window on the Earliest Christians, 168. Paul also uses Maranatha (μαράνα θά) in 1 Corinthians 16:22. 116 raise the bodies of all the people who have lived, and will clothe the worthy with incorruption.”427 Consequences for Abusing the Communion Meal “Therefore whoever eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner, shall be guilty of the body and the blood of the Lord. But a man must test himself, and in so doing he is to eat of the bread and drink of the cup. For he who eats and drinks, eats and drinks judgment to himself if he does not judge the body rightly. For this reason many among you are weak and sick, and a number sleep” (1 Corinthians 11:27-30, LSB). Verses 27-30 demonstrate that there are serious consequences for misusing or abusing the original intent of the Lord’s Supper. Paul might have learned of these consequences from the ones who told him of the Corinthian divisions, and he connects these events.428 Paul applies the institutional words of Jesus to the Corinthian worship. The apostle warns the church not to take part in the Supper in an “unworthy manner” (11:27, LSB) and to “test” (11:28, LSB) themselves before receiving the elements. The word “unworthy” (ἀναξίως) can also be translated as “improperly” or “in an improper manner.”429 Wright summarizes that in context, an unworthy manner was “selfish or snobbish behaviour [sic] described in verses 17–22.”430 It could also be argued that the unworthy manner may refer to an observance of the communion meal that does not “proclaim the Lord’s death” (1 Cor 11:26, LSB) but instead a contrasting message or focus. Not understanding the true nature and purpose of communion as instituted by Jesus could cause 427Justin Martyr, Apologia i 52.3. See also 51.8-9. Justin Martyr and Barnard, St. Justin Martyr: The First and Second Apologies, 52. 428 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 434. 429 Louw et al., s.v. “ἀναξίως,” 627. 430 Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God, 1346. 117 one to approach the meal incorrectly. In the positive, “If they are proclaiming the Lord’s death in what they do at the Lord’s Supper, they will not overindulge themselves, despise others, shame them, or allow them to go hungry.”431 1 Corinthians 11:29 (LSB) states that those who participate unworthily “do not judge the body rightly.” This has been understood in different ways, including (1) Not distinguishing the bread and cup from the common food of the Agape meal (1 Cor 11:20);432 (2) Not reflecting on the death of Jesus as one partakes (1 Cor 11:26), with “body” being shorthand for “the body and the blood”;433 (3) As a metaphor for the church as the body of Christ (1 Cor 10:17).434 Receiving the bread and cup without emphasis on the body and blood of Jesus or a self-centered taking of the meal to the neglect of the church body seem more plausible interpretations of this statement. The immediate context of “body” in verse 29, compared to verses 24-27 and the physical body of Jesus, seems to favor the interpretation of not reflecting on the death of Christ. As a hybrid of both interpretations, Duff concludes that receiving the bread and cup wrongfully is a refusal to acknowledge the New Covenant brought about by the blood of Jesus, which has reconciled them into a community.435 Schreiner notes that the way the Corinthians have received the Lord’s Supper has one benefit: it reveals who the true believers are in the church community (11:19).436 431 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 430. 432 Since the church father Augustine, “some have interpreted this as a reference to discerning the sacred bread from other, ordinary bread.” Myers, “Lord’s Supper,” 244. 433 Taylor, 1 Corinthians, 149. 434 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 622. 435 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 571. 436 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1297w. 118 Preparing for Receiving the Elements Is everyone at the worship responsible for coming worthily, or just the ministers presiding over the meal? Verse 28 answers this question. The receiver of the communion meal is told what they should do to ensure they do not take the bread and cup wrongfully. “But let a man test himself.” Kistemaker notes that the adversative “but” (δὲ) is a prescription for everyone who desires to participate in the meal to self-examine.437 The “man” (ἄνθρωπος) or “person” (ESV) is generic and excludes no one.438 The receiver of the bread and cup is to “test” (δοκιμαζέτω) or “examine” (ESV) himself, a word often used for the testing of metals.439 Fee does not see this word as calling for deep introspection to determine personal worthiness.440 He notes that Paul uses this term in other Epistles for believers’ testing themselves in relation to their works (Gal 6:4) and their faith (2 Cor 13:5).441 Paul is not calling for perfection, but to stop obvious sin in the church community.442 Do the receiver’s actions demonstrate the reconciliation of the New Covenant and a gospel unity? Does the one coming to the Lord’s Table receive and proclaim Christ, or only benefit themselves to the detriment of the church community? Is there failure to find thankfulness in the salvation provided by Christ in the heart of one receiving the bread and the cup? Is the one receiving the bread and cup only attending to their own needs and neglecting the poor?443 The participants should ask these kinds of questions before taking the elements. True 437 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 401. 438 Ibid., 401. 439 Morris, The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, 161. 440 Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 621. 441 Ibid. Fee summarizes the application of this for the believer, stating that this is to test their “attitude toward the table, especially their behavior toward others at the table.” 442 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1298g. 443 Ibid., 1297w. 119 faith in Jesus and unity with His body, the church, is needed to proclaim His death at the Lord’s Supper rightly. Justin also limits participation in the Lord’s Table to those “who lives their life like Christ instructed.”444 It is a serious offense to take the communion meal in the wrong manner. Paul warns that those who do so will be “guilty of the body and the blood of the Lord” (11:27, LSB), “eats and drinks judgment to himself” (11:29, LSB), and could lead to weakness, temporary sickness, and even death (11:30). The word “guilty” (ἔνοχος) could also be translated liable and is a judicial term which means “that the Corinthians are answerable to God, the final judge, for this abuse.”445 Paul warned in the previous chapter (10:1-5, LSB) that many of the Israelites who “ate” (10:3) and “drank” (10:4) were “struck down” (10:5) or died, in the wilderness because they were not right with God. This could be paralleled to what James referred to in his letter when he calls on the sick person to “confess your sins to one another so that you may be healed” (James 5:16, LSB). This judgment could be a type of mercy, for the Lord is disciplining them in the present so they will not “be condemned along with the world” (11:32, LSB) at the final judgment.446 The warning that a number “sleep” (11:30, LSB) or “have died” (ESV) in Corinth must be understood considering the rest of the New Testament. This verb (κοιμῶνται) is used in the New Testament exclusively as a metaphor for death when speaking of the deaths of believers.447 Duff suggests that these words of warning angered the Corinthians so much that they used them against Paul. Duff asserts that the apostle wrote 2 Corinthians 2:14-7:4 to defend his 444 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.1. 445 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 431. 446 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1297x. 447 Ibid., 1298e. Schreiner concludes, “The judgment is portrayed as disciplinary rather than retributive.” 120 weak physical appearance apologetically.448 Paul was not guilty of the body and blood of Jesus and consequently sick. Approaching the Lord’s Supper and receiving it in an unworthy manner not only fragments the unity of the body of Christ, but is also a crime against the Lord Jesus Himself.449 In essence, this would be allying oneself with the killers of Jesus, whom Paul earlier in the book writes, “crucified the Lord of glory” (1 Cor 2:8, LSB).450 Garland proposes another understanding of these sicknesses and deaths occurring in Corinth. He suggests that they have become physically weak, sick, or died because of a literal lack of food.451 Some commentators have suggested there was a famine in Corinth contemporary to the writing of this letter. This has led to the poor physically suffering and dying and the greed of the wealthier church members (James 2:14-17). Later, towards the end of the first century or beginning of the second century, the Shepherd of Hermas records a similar situation and warning: Now, therefore, listen to me and if you are at peace among yourselves and take care of one another and help one another and not only do you partake of the creatures of God ⌊from your abundance⌋, but you also share with the needy. For some are contracting illness in their flesh from too much food and are injuring their flesh, but others who do not have food, their flesh is being injured by not having sufficient food, and their flesh is wasting away. Therefore this lack of sharing is harmful to you who have and do not share with those who are in need. Consider the judgment which is coming. Therefore those who have an overabundance, let them seek out those who hunger...452 448 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 576. Duff suggests that the Corinthians felt this was God’s vengeance on Paul for an alleged dishonest behavior regarding the offering he collected for the Jerusalem Church, as explained in 1 Corinthians 16:1-4. 449 Wright, Paul and the Faithfulness of God, 1347. 450 Duff, “Alone Together: Celebrating the Lord’s Supper in Corinth,” 571. Fee explains this as being “liable for his death.” Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 621. 451 Garland, 1 Corinthians, 434. 452 Shepherd of Hermas, Vision 3.9. Rick Brannan, “The Shepherd of Hermas,” in The Apostolic Fathers in English (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2012), Logos. 121 The receiver must “judge” (διακρίνων) the body rightly in the Lord’s Table (11:29, LSB). The English Standard Version renders this word as “discerning,” and it speaks of making a “judgment on the basis of careful and detailed information.”453 Self-introspection is necessary to fulfill the command to “judge the body right” (11:29, LSB). This is not an examination of others in the church community but a personal discernment of how one approaches the Lord’s Supper. Communion participants should reflect on whether their “actions contradict what Christ accomplished in his death” and whether they are “splitting apart the church that Christ has united.”454 This discerning includes distinguishing the bread and cup of Christ from the Agape meal and common food that is eaten at home (11:34). This “supper” (11:20) is not primarily for the physical nourishment of the body but for proclaiming the death of the Lord. There are physical consequences given in these verses for spiritually receiving the Lord’s Supper wrongfully. In the next chapter, Paul mentions the gift of healing (12:9, 28), but this did not stop the unworthy receiver from getting sick or even, as Paul writes, some “sleep,” a metaphor for death. Theological Conclusions In 1 Corinthians 11, the apostle Paul dealt with a serious problem in the Corinthian church, a wrongful understanding of the New Covenant, when the church body came together for the Agape meal and the Lord’s Supper. He warned of inappropriate approaches to the Lord’s Table and the serious implications of such participation. Paul went to the source meal for all Christian meals, the Lord Jesus giving the original Supper. This is the same meal that Justin Martyr describes in chapters 65-67 of First Apology. Since Justin’s description includes an 453 Louw et al., s.v. “διακρίνω,” 363. 454 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1298e. 122 offering to care for all who are in need, it seems the problems in Corinth had been solved by the time Justin describes the participation in the Eucharist in his generation. His emphasis on the body and blood of Christ demonstrates the continuity between the Gospel records and Paul’s applications to the church in Corinth. This model should be observed so that the church can faithfully proclaim the Lord’s death. Paul’s exhortation emphasizes keeping the emphasis and objective of the meal on remembering Jesus’ body and blood, not satisfying physical hunger (1 Cor 11:34). Kistemaker concludes that the rightful participant “must realize the sacredness of the sacrament and the necessity of coming to the Holy Supper with profound reverence. Celebrating communion calls for joy and happiness but never for superficiality and carelessness.”455 Self-examination, which occurs at the communion meal, is not merely individualistic but pertains to how believers treat one another.456 This type of regular communion participation will strengthen the faith of God’s children in Christ’s work on the Cross. Theoretical Foundations Different practices could be adopted to transform how a Christian participates in the Lord’s Supper. To see spiritual growth in participants, Jonathan Kim suggests a “holistic pedagogy” to be central in the methodology employed.457 Pedagogy is the “art, occupation, or practice of teaching.”458 As the mind is challenged with the teaching of new knowledge using the 455 Kistemaker, Exposition of the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 400. 456 Schreiner, 1 Corinthians: An Introduction and Commentary, 1298g. 457 Jonathan H. Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation” in Christian Formation: Integrating Theology and Human Development, eds. James R. Estep and Jonathan H. Kim (Nashville, TN: B&H Books, 2010), 4, ProQuest. 458 Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Pedagogy,” accessed December 14, 2023, https://www.oed.com/dictionary/?scope=Entries&q=pedagogy. 123 writings of the church father Justin Martyr and the words of Scripture, mental commitments will change, leading to a participatory alteration and a more faithful practice. It is critical in holistic pedagogy to understand the importance of intellectual development. Intellectual development, comprehended through the knowledge of the rational and relational mind, is an integral part of the social sciences for a researcher.459 The rational dimension of the mind involves assimilation and accommodation of new information, which can spiritually result in faith.460 The relational dimension of the mind has the power to apprehend and validate empirical knowledge.461 The relational mind processes the relational activity between the individual and God, the relational activity between the individual and other humans, and the relational activity between the individual and their context.462 Working within the developmental processes innate within humanity is critical to reach both the rational and relational dimensions of the mind.463 Kim defines the intellect described in Scripture as the thinking agent of the soul that conceives and perceives ideas based on reflection, reasoning, and judgment.464 For evidence of this, he cites Proverbs 4:23, which commands the believer to “Guard your heart with all diligence, For from it flow the springs of life (LSB). The word “heart” ( ִלב) can be defined as the “inner man, mind, will, heart.”465 Derek Kidner notes that 459 Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation,” 18i. The relational mind is designated the themata dimension. The rational mind is designated the schemata dimension. 460 Ibid. 461 Ibid. 462 Ibid. 463 James R. Estep Jr., “Developmental Theories: Foe, Friend, or Folly?” in Christian Formation: Integrating Theology and Human Development, eds. James R. Estep and Jonathan H. Kim (Nashville, TN: B&H Books, 2010), 18e, ProQuest. 464 Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation,” 18r. 465 Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs, s.v. “ֵלב,”Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 524, Logos. 124 this word commonly stands for the mind but can also represent emotions, the will, and the whole inner being.466 This Proverb places the “heart” or “mind” as the guiding force for life change. In the New Testament, a vital text related to intellect is found in what is called the greatest commandment (Matt 22:37-38). Jesus states, “YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND” (Matt 22:37, LSB). The word “mind” (διανοίᾳ) can be defined as “the psychological faculty of understanding, reasoning, thinking, and deciding.”467 In this passage, Jesus quotes Deuteronomy 6:5 and demands a love that requires the whole person. This love involves the use of the mind. The mention of “all” the mind indicates the importance of engaging the entire mind in spiritual transformation. John Piper comments on this passage that “our thinking should be wholly engaged to do all it can to awaken and express the heartfelt fullness of treasuring God above all things.”468 This means how we use our mind to think relates directly to how we love God.469 Holistic pedagogy will address the participants’ practice in the Lord’s Supper through the intellect. It is not enough to have the correct views of communion. Instead, how one participates should change as their mental understanding is transformed. Thoughts and affections are mutually caused, with the thoughts fueling the affections.470 In the New Testament, “knowing” truth leads to transformed and holy behavior (1 Cor 5:6; 6:15; James 4:4).471 The feelings towards receiving communion and how the participant 466 Derek Kidner, Proverbs: An Introduction and Commentary, vol. 17, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1964), 65, Logos. 467 Louw et al., s.v. “διάνοια,” 323-324. 468 John Piper, Think: The Life of the Mind and the Love of God (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2010), 83. 469 Ibid., 84. 470 Ibid., 24. 471 Ibid., 127. 125 remembers Christ will change with accurate thoughts acquired in the intellectual development. Methods that have been employed in impacting the intellect and transforming the participation in the Lord’s Supper for a Christian include the historical use of catechisms and small group Bible studies. The Use of Catechisms for the Transformation of Participation The word catechism finds its source in the Greek term κατηχέω, meaning “to teach in a systematic or detailed manner.”472 It is used in Acts 18:25 (LSB) to speak of Apollos, a man who was “instructed (κατηχημένος) in the way of the Lord.” In Luke’s introduction to his Gospel, he uses the word to speak of how Theophilus had been “taught” (κατηχήθης, Luke 1:4, LSB). The church father Augustine used the Latin noun, catechismus, for instruction in the basic teachings of the church. By the late Middle Ages, the content of most catechisms included the Ten Commandments, the Apostles’ Creed, and the Lord’s Prayer.473 A catechism is used relationally between a catechist, who serves as a discipleship instructor, and a catechumen, the one being instructed.474 This relational process between the catechist and catechumen is known as catechizing. The question-and-answer format of a catechism provides a clear and concise understanding of the knowledge of the nature of God, His action on behalf of His people, and the proper human response to that knowledge.475 A goal for catechism instruction is for the catechumen to learn what it means to be a Christian, what is 472 Louw et al., s.v. “κατηχέω,” 413. 473 Timothy J. Wengert, The Small Catechism, 1529, ed. Mary Jane Haemig (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2017), 201. 474 To Be a Christian: An Anglican Catechism (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2020), 9. 475 Kyle J. Dieleman, “The Heidelberg Catechism, Calvin’s Genevan Catechism, and Spirituality: A Comparative Study” in The Spirituality of the Heidelberg Catechism: Papers of the International Conference on the Heidelberg Catechism Held in Apeldoorn 2013, ed. Arnold Huijgen (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015), 63, ProQuest. 126 fundamental to the Christian life, and what is essential to their faith.476 The catechism should equip the catechumen to understand sermons, how to approach the sacraments of the church, and biblical guidance for maintaining a Christian home.477 Catechisms have traditionally been employed by ministers with both children in the church and those seeking to become a Christian, by parents to educate their children, and in classrooms for teachers to disciple their students. Major branches of the Christian church have developed or adopted catechisms to be utilized by their communions. Roman Catholicism has developed the Catechism of the Catholic Church, with questions 1,322 to 1,419 centered on the Eucharist.478 Lutherans have adopted Martin Luther’s The Small Catechism, which contains five questions on “The Sacrament of The Altar,” which deals with the Lord’s Supper.479 Martin Luther’s The Large Catechism also addresses the Lord’s Supper under the heading “The Sacrament of The Altar” as the conclusion of the catechism, expanding on The Small Catechism.480 Presbyterians have adopted the Westminster Shorter Catechism, produced by the Westminster Assembly, made for children and new converts, with questions 88 and 91-93 dealing with the sacraments in general and 96-97 the Lord’s Supper directly.481 The Westminster Larger Catechism enlarges the explanations, dealing with the sacraments in general in question 476 Dieleman, “The Heidelberg Catechism, Calvin’s Genevan Catechism, and Spirituality,” 19. 477 Wengert, The Small Catechism, 208. 478 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 368-396. 479 The Small Catechism, 1529, 235-236. 480 Henry Eyster Jacobs, trans., The Large Catechism of Martin Luther (Philadelphia, PA: United Lutheran Publication Society, 2018), 103-113. 481 Shawn Bawulski and Stephen R. Holmes, “The Westminster Standards” in Christian Theology: The Classics (New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group, 2014), 123, ProQuest. “The Westminster Shorter Catechism,” Puritan Reformed Theological Seminary, accessed March 1, 2024. https://prts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Shorter_Catechism.pdf. 127 154 and 161-164, and the Lord’s Supper in 168-177.482 Other reformed pastors have developed specific catechisms for their congregations, with questions regarding the Lord’s Supper to strengthen the faithful participation in the ordinance.483 One exemplary Puritan minister was Arthur Hildersham, who penned a catechism of one hundred questions and answers dedicated solely to the worthy reception of the Lord’s Table.484 While Baptists have not uniformly adopted a catechism, Benjamin Keach’s catechism of 1677, Keach’s Catechism, has been adopted by many congregations. Keach devotes questions 95 and 98-99 to the ordinances in general and questions 107-108 to the Lord’s Supper.485 It was later updated in 1693 and published as The Baptist Catechism, with question 93 on the ordinances and questions 102-104 on the Lord’s Supper.486 In 1680, Baptist Hercules Collins published An Orthodox Catechism, with questions 65 to 68 on the sacraments in general and 80 to 88 on the Lord’s Supper.487 The catechism found in the Church of England Book of Common Prayer from 1662 contained three questions on the sacraments in general and five questions on the Lord’s Supper.488 To Be A Christian: An Anglican Catechism, the catechism of the Anglican Church of 482 “The Westminster Larger Catechism,” The Free Presbyterian Church, accessed March 1, 2024. 30-31, 32-35. https://www.freepresbyterian.org/uploads/Larger_Catechism.pdf. 483 See Archbishop James Ussher, A Body of Divinity: Being the Sum and Substance of the Christian Religion (Herdon, VA: Solid Ground Christian Books, 2007), 381-389. Ussher wrote 62 questions regarding the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. See also William Perkins, “The Foundation of The Christian Religion” in The Works of William Perkins, Volume 5, ed. Ryan Hurd (Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2017), 505-506. Perkins wrote five questions on the Sacraments in general and five questions on the Lord’s Supper. 484 Arthur Hildersham, “The Doctrine of Communicating Worthily in the Lord’s Supper” in Preparing for the Lord’s Supper, ed. Lesley A. Rowe (Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2019), 100-169. 485 “Keach’s Catechism,” Baptist Studies Online, accessed March 1, 2024. http://baptiststudiesonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/02/keachs-catechism-of-1677.pdf . 486 “The Baptist Catechism” in The London Baptist Confession of Faith of 1689: With Original Preface, Baptist Catechism, and Appendix on Baptism (Pensacola, FL: Chapel Library, 2016), 42-57. 487 Collins, An Orthodox Catechism, 45-46, 55-61. 488 The 1662 Book of Common Prayer, International Edition, eds. Samuel L. Bray and Drew Nathaniel Keane (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2021), 304-306. 128 North America, has five questions, 121-125, on Sacraments in general and six questions, 131-136, directly on the Lord’s Supper.489 Most recently, the parachurch organization The Gospel Coalition developed a catechism, The New City Catechism. Question 43 addresses the nature of a sacrament or ordinance, and questions 46-47 are dedicated to the Lord’s Supper.490 The Use of a Small Group Study for Transformation of Participation To bring about change in participation in the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church, a small group study is another intentional method to implement. A small group community study is one way to interact closely in an intimate environment to articulate material and elicit feedback.491 Studying the historical practice of Justin Martyr in the light of Scripture has precedent biblically and can be done with clarity in a small group study to prompt change. In Acts 17, the apostle Paul and Silas were driven out of Thessalonica after the city was set in an uproar. The author of Acts records that they went to Berea, a city in Southwestern Macedonia, approximately 40 miles west of Thessalonica.492 In 17:11 (LSB), the Bereans are recorded as “examining the Scriptures daily” to evaluate whether the things taught by Paul and Silas “were so.” Scripture records this action as “noble-minded” (εὐγενέστεροι), an adjective defined as “a willingness to learn and evaluate something fairly.”493 This resulted in many people in the city coming to faith in Christ (Acts 17:12). 489 To Be a Christian, 55-56, 58-59. 490 “The New City Catechism,” accessed March 1, 2024. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/new-city-catechism. 491 Brad House, Community: Taking Your Small Group Off Life Support (Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2011), 39, ProQuest. 492 John D. Barry, “Beroea of Macedonia” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al., (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016), Logos. 493 Louw et al., s.v. “εὐγενής,” 331. 129 A small group study is often most effective if it is goal-related. The people of Berea evaluated the claims of the apostle Paul and Silas as a goal to see if they were congruent with Scripture. Objectives for effective small groups include providing support, obtaining resources for members, and producing decisions in a task-oriented manner.494 The goal of this group will not be limited to resources or support but will be task-oriented. Through resources and support, the group will seek to encourage participants to observe the ordinance of the Lord’s Supper more faithfully. This examination of the Scriptures described by the Bereans is often best practiced in a community setting. Mark Maddix defines small group communities as one of the preeminent means for spiritual and Christian formation.495 A small group study will enable the participants to evaluate Justin Martyr’s description and theology in the light of Scripture and provide opportunities for feedback and further growth. Kim gives three teaching suggestions for utilizing the social science of intellectual development for more effective transformation. First, the researcher must allow questions and dialogue in the classroom to correct misconceptions and gain correct conceptions.496 A monologue is not the most effective way to engage the mind’s relational and rational dimensions. Second, the researcher must ask thought-provoking questions and encourage participant self-reflection.497 The participants must be challenged to think critically and apply information 494 Marshall Scott Poole et al., “Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Small Groups” in Theories of Small Groups: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, eds. Marshall Scott Poole and Andrea B. Hollingshead (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2005), 22, ProQuest. 495 Mark A. Maddix, “Spiritual Formation and Christian Formation” in Christian Formation: Integrating Theology and Human Development, eds. James R. Estep and Jonathan H. Kim (Nashville, TN: B&H Books, 2010), Chapter 8, Logos. 496 Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation,” 1897b. 497 Ibid. 130 personally and even communally within the church context. Third, this researcher must focus on the transformation of life, not just the transmission of knowledge.498 The curriculum content must be geared toward helping the participants change their behavior, not simply convincing them intellectually. Teaching must not be generic when seeking to develop the mind.499 Merely giving data to the participants or simply transmitting content will not bring about transformation.500 In their book Action Research, Ernest T. Stringer and Alfredo Ortiz Aragón write about the importance of communication. A small group study that follows their description of effective communication will allow for growth and healthy participation in this project. They write, “Effective communication in action research is achieved when one listens attentively to people, accepts and acts on what they say, can be understood by everyone, is truthful and sincere, acts in socially and culturally appropriate ways, [and] regularly advises others about what is happening.”501 The emphasis on acting in socially and culturally appropriate ways will result in a six-week study in a local church context. Small group studies are a regular means of disseminating information in church culture and socially in education. This project will follow this description of effective communication in outlining and defining what the purpose of the project is, what the expectations of the class are, and what to expect both at the outset of the class and weekly. Following this outline will provide clarity about what is happening throughout the 498 Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation,” 1897b. 499 Estep, “Developmental Theories: Foe, Friend, or Folly?,” 18e. 500 Kim, “Intellectual Development and Christian Formation,” 1897b. 501 Ernest T. Stringer and Alfredo Ortiz Aragón. Action Research, 5th ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2021), 35, Liberty University Online Bookshelf. 131 project. The sessions will operate for an hour each, a culturally acceptable length of time. Time should be considered a resource; how a group manages time is essential to an effective study.502 The hourly session will not be limited to lectures. In addition, the class will also focus on weekly opportunities for questions and answers, or as Stringer and Aragón suggest, to listen attentively to the people. As human values play a role in social scientific research, class interactions should be conducted following a Christian ethic and worldview consistent with the doctrines and beliefs of Klondike Church and as found in Scripture. 503 Stringer and Aragón summarize the values of action research as enabling the participation of all people, acknowledging the equality and worth of all, providing freedom from oppressive conditions, and promoting the expression of people’s full potential.504 This type of communication in the classroom, especially in the opportunities for dialogue and questions and answers, will allow the participants to grow intellectually and spiritually in their understanding of and participation in communion. Conclusion The problem that this action research project seeks to address is that members of Klondike Church lack a comprehensive, historical biblical understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper. A deficit of instruction on the Lord’s Table often results in the extremes of flippancy to morbid introspection in the participation of many congregants. This action research project aims to develop a small group study to address this problem and correct these wrongful 502 Holly Arrow et al., “Traces, Trajectories, and Timing: The Temporal Perspective on Groups” in Theories of Small Groups: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, eds. by Marshall Scott Poole and Andrea B. Hollingshead (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2005), 317, ProQuest. 503 Poole et al., “Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Small Groups,” 16. 504 Stringer and Aragón, Action Research, 21. 132 postures of participation by providing a comprehensive, historical biblical understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper following the model of the church father Justin Martyr. Maddix notes, “People are also formed and shaped in the context of Christian community as they encounter the Triune God in worship.”505 This study will be unique in that each week, there will be a worship service allowing the participants to utilize what they have learned and discussed to encounter the Triune God afresh in the Lord’s Supper observance. Part of this action research project includes a participation in the Lord’s Supper that will be biblically faithful. Maddix writes, “Scripture is less about information but more about formation and transformation.”506 The goal of this action research project and six-week class is not to disseminate knowledge but to cultivate more faithful participation, transforming the worship of individuals through a correct understanding of communion. One of the desires of the action research project is a change in some fundamental way that takes place in the participants, helping them gain a deeper understanding of themselves.507 This researcher asserts that a small group study is a proper way to address this problem, removing the deficit of understanding and anemic practices often found in members of the church. Ultimately, this action research thesis project will follow the Bereans of Acts 17 example, which corresponds to small group theory and practice. This research will include instruction, dialogue, surveys, and weekly opportunities to put into practice what is taught and discussed in the classroom, with the desire for positive changes in the participants. 505 Maddix, Biblical Images of Christian Spiritual Formation, Chapter 8. 506 Maddix, Scripture As Spiritual Formation, Chapter 8. 507 Stringer and Aragón, 212. 133 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY The research methodology of this thesis project addressed the problem of a lack of a comprehensive, historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church. The intervention harmonized with the theological and theoretical foundations described in Chapter Two. This section describes the intervention and implementation of the action research project over eight weeks and includes the process of identifying project participants and the course utilized to gain their permission to participate in this research project. The implementation of the intervention design provides an accurate narrative of how the design was implemented with the participants. The length of the project consisted of one week of orientation, six weeks of instruction, and a final week of evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention. The thesis of this project asserts: If Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Lord’s Supper is purposefully studied in the light of Scripture, then Klondike Church’s participation will be biblically faithful. The intervention design that follows served as an impetus for the participants to transform their partaking in communion into a participation that is biblically faithful. Intervention Design The intervention design was comprised of a longitudinal survey, a six-week Bible study class, interviews, and a focus group. The intervention design addressed ignorance and misunderstandings of communion among those participating in the Lord’s Supper in the church congregation. A six-week, small group Bible study class in which the historical practice of the 134 Lord’s Supper by the church father Justin Martyr was studied through the lens of Scripture and served as the nucleus of the intervention design. The development of a six-week Bible study curriculum based on the Literature Review and Theological Foundations in Chapter Two sought to bring change in the theological understanding and behavioral participation in the taking of the Lord’s Supper. The goal of this small group study was to cultivate a life-long approach to this ordinance of Scripture that is Christ-centered, gospel-focused, and strengthens the entire body of Christ in the local church. Permissions and Recruitment Before implementing the intervention at Klondike Church, two levels of permission needed to be granted. First, approval was needed from the Liberty University Institutional Review Board (IRB). This was followed by formal written approval from the leadership of Klondike Church for this action research project to commence (Appendix A). This researcher requested approval from the deacon and elder ministries of Klondike Church. Once the full support for this project was formally approved, the intervention began with the recruitment of participants. There were two levels of recruitment for this action research project: the advertising phase and the interview phase. Advertising for the recruitment of participants was sought by multiple avenues three weeks before the first class began. All advertising methods aimed to explain the reason for the project and what would be expected of the participants. The class dates and times were advertised. Participants were required to be eighteen years and older, as the study sought to represent various age ranges and diverse Christian maturity levels. 135 First, online public announcements of the class were made via the social media accounts of this researcher and Klondike Church (Appendix B). These include both Facebook and Instagram. Second, public announcements of the project during the Sunday morning worship service were made with a graphic slide utilized on social media. Third, flyers were posted in classrooms and the main hallway of the sanctuary building to advertise the class (Appendix C). Fourth, an email invitation was sent to the church body via Klondike Church’s email list that explained the project and asked for participation (Appendix D). The advertising announcements for the six-week study emphasized Klondike Church’s participation in the Lord’s Supper and the importance of communion to the universal church. The Lord’s Supper is a weekly and integral part of the worship services of Klondike Church; however, the researcher has observed that many who observe communion do not understand its significance or how to partake in this part of church life in a biblical manner. This class was advertised as an opportunity to study the description and theology of communion as expressed by the great Christian of the second century, Justin Martyr. The class considered the Scriptures to 136 seek to recover biblical, historical, and personally transformative participation in this part of church worship. All promotional campaigns were addressed to members and regular attendees of Klondike Church who are over eighteen years of age, have made a profession of faith in Jesus Christ for salvation, and have been baptized. Participation was limited to adults at the exclusion of minors, as minor involvement creates potential obstacles to gaining Institutional Review Board approval and complexities for training and education. Profession of faith in Jesus as Lord and water baptism were requirements to participate in the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church. Table 3.2. is provided as a visual representation of the requirements for participation. The second phase of recruitment was the interview phase. By phone, this researcher contacted all who responded to the announcements to confirm they were professing Christians, had been baptized, and were at least eighteen years old. In this initial contact, the researcher sought to acquire all the necessary contact information for each participant, including email addresses and cell phone numbers. The email address and cell phone number were used as a regular means of communication each week throughout the project for announcements and 137 reminders. This aided in acquiring the necessary consent forms (Appendix E) signed by each participant of the six-week study. The consent forms detailed the reasoning for the project and required acceptance to participate. The project enrollment was limited to twelve participants with two alternates, totaling fourteen. Class Curriculum and Meeting Space The teaching notes used by this researcher were developed based on the study of Scripture and the contents of Chapter Two, which consists of both the Literature Review and Theological Foundations. Weekly notes were provided to the class to complement the instruction (Appendix F). These include a historical introduction to Justin Martyr, definitions of key terms, pertinent biblical texts, and weekly thematic teaching outlined with essential quotations. The outline allowed participants to take notes as the class progressed and provided a systematic and understandable presentation. A binder was provided for each participant. The notes were hole-punched and distributed at the beginning of each session. Discussion throughout the class was allowed and encouraged. At the end of each session, time was allotted for questions and answers. Blank pages were included so that the students could add notes that were not planned during the teaching but arose during the discussions. Anticipated project costs for these materials are shown in Table 3.3. 138 Finally, recordings of each class session were made available to benefit participants who may have missed a class session or want to review what was taught in the classes. These recordings also allowed this researcher to revisit and evaluate the questions asked by the participants. The recording began as the class commenced each week with prayer and was turned off at the end of the question-and-answer session.1 These recordings were emailed to the entire class weekly and sent directly to those who missed the class session so they would have immediate access to review. Equipment for recording, owned by this researcher, consisted of a Rode Wireless GO II Dual Channel Microphone System for the audio. The church’s Blackmagic Design Pocket 4k camera was utilized for the video. The class was conducted in the main sanctuary at Klondike Church, which has approximately 4,000 square feet of space. 1 The Consent Form (Appendix E) signed by each participant granted the researcher permission to both audio and video record the participants. 139 This room has access to multiple church-owned resources for use outside the video camera. These include a lectern from which to teach, two EIKI projectors and screens to project on, and approximately 200 seats on 22 pews. This researcher’s HP Spectre x360 laptop computer projected the presentations through the church’s media booth and projector. Microsoft PowerPoint™ presentations were utilized in the teaching sessions. Figure 3.1. is provided as a visual representation of the proposed classroom layout. The class content offered each week included the historical perspective of Justin Martyr and biblical instruction on the Lord’s Supper. Class one began with an introduction to the Lord’s Supper. This session included a biographical sketch of the church father, Justin Martyr, the importance of his historical writings, and his description of a second-century worship service. The various names used for the church ordinance of the Lord’s Supper were discussed. Last, the class shifted to understanding the categorization of the Lord’s Supper as an ordinance and a Sacrament. 140 Class two introduced the Lord’s Supper as a communion meal with God. It provided an overview of the importance of meals in the Old Testament and the life of Jesus. The class concluded by discussing how spiritual nourishment is found in the communion service and the benefits of coming to the table. Class three focused on who are the rightful candidates to participate in the Lord’s Supper. This session introduced the concept of closed communion, provided an example of a credible profession of faith, and discussed the importance of water baptism in the participant’s life. It concluded with the subject of self-examination and what it means to receive the Lord’s Supper worthily. Class four examined how to fulfill the command of Jesus to take the Lord’s Supper in remembrance of Him. It focused on the meaning of the bread and the cup, emphasizing how Jesus transformed the meaning of the elements used in the Passover meal. Class five discussed the presence of Jesus in the Lord’s Supper. This included teaching about God’s presence with His people in Scripture and various historical views of how Jesus is present in the communion meal. The views of different church fathers and reformers were emphasized. Class six discussed the communal nature of communion, emphasizing the unity found in the body of Christ. The class examined the importance of regularly and weekly observing the Lord’s Table in the early church. It also considered the COVID-19 pandemic and the adjustments the universal church made to the Lord’s Table during this season. The class concluded with applications of how the church can minister through the Lord’s Table as a mercy ministry to those 141 missing in worship on Sunday. The class took place on Wednesday nights from 6:30 to 7:30. Table 3.4. is provided as a visual representation of the teaching sessions. Project Timeline Three weeks before the class commenced, the promotional advertising began. Once a participant was confirmed and a consent form signed, the researcher requested a pre-intervention measurement. The participants were asked to complete a Likert scale survey to ascertain their current intellectual understanding of the Lord’s Supper (Appendix G). This survey was used to gauge how each participant understood the themes that would be taught during the six weeks. This was a purposive survey, requiring only those participating in the class to take the survey. Approximately 50 close-ended questions were used in this survey. This also was a longitudinal survey, readministered at the end of the six weeks of classes to determine if the understanding of the participant had shifted towards a more biblical view of communion. Once the class commenced, this researcher interviewed twelve participants outside the classroom over the first week via telephone and in person to ascertain their past experiences with communion (Appendix H). Each participant was asked open-ended questions to understand their 142 current involvement during the communion portion of worship services. These questions also clarified their experiences concerning worship and the Lord’s Supper. Each class was one hour in length, with time reserved for questions by the participants. The classroom atmosphere was such that the participants could raise their hands during the teaching for clarification, observation, and questions. This researcher reviewed the discussions on the recordings and detailed them in the journal to help determine class comprehension and areas needing clarification. During the fourth week of class, the researcher conducted a focus group to gain perspective on what might be changing intellectually and experientially in the member’s participation in the communion portion of worship (Appendix I). This group was held at the church facilities or in a local coffee shop or restaurant. The size of the group was five participants and one alternate, all selected from the original twelve interviewed. This group aimed to determine the project’s efficacy in the participant’s life. The focus group was to be audio recorded utilizing this researcher’s iPhone and the application Voice Memos. The discussion included an intellectual and participatory evaluation. Intellectually, it was desired that the participants be able to identify the correct recipients of the communion meal. They needed to be measured to see if they could determine what “taking worthily” the Lord’s Supper means. The discussion surrounded correctly understanding the spiritual nature of communion and how Christ is present in this act of worship. The origins of the ordinance and frequency of observation were reviewed. The final conversation of the focus group analyzed how the participant personally changed their approach to communion each Sunday. 143 After the last Bible study session in week six, the Likert survey (Appendix G) was administered to the participants. As this was a longitudinal survey, each participant needed to take the survey to determine how their theological views had changed concerning the Lord’s Supper. This was not the end of the project. A week following the completion of the class, a final focus group of six participants met either at the church facilities or in a local coffee shop or restaurant. The same discussion points as the previous focus group were used. However, there was more time allotted to discuss what transformation happened as a group or individually during the project in hopes that their perspectives and practices have aligned. The ultimate desire is for their participation in the Lord’s Supper to be strengthened biblically. Table 3.5. is provided as a visual representation of the project timeline. 144 Implementation of the Intervention Design The Implementation of the Intervention Design is provided as a narrative of the process that transpired with the participants and a collection of data that was gathered. After receiving Institutional Review Board approval, the researcher acquired permission from Klondike Church’s leadership, which consisted of one elder and four deacons. This was conducted during a scheduled leadership team meeting on Sunday, March 3, 2024, and included acquiring the Permission Request Letter (Appendix A). Following their approval, dates were confirmed that would include approximately two weeks of advertising, six weeks of classes from April 3 to May 8, and a final week of evaluation. Advertising of the Action Research Project Advertising of the project commenced via this researcher’s Liberty University email address on the following Wednesday morning, March 6, utilizing the church’s regular email list with an announcement (Appendix E). That same evening, an announcement was made during the church’s weekly Bible study, explaining the class, its dates, and participation requirements. This was also announced the following Wednesday evening, March 13. These announcements were important as the class would be held at the same location and time on Wednesday evenings at 6:30 for six weeks. Recruitment flyers were passed out to all Wednesday evening attendees (Appendix C), and extra copies were left on the church informational table. Flyers advertising the class (illustrated in Appendix B) were posted on the bulletin boards of the church facilities in classrooms and the main hallway of the sanctuary building. The following morning, March 7, the project was advertised on Klondike Church’s Facebook and Instagram social media accounts (Appendix B). Public announcements were made on two consecutive Sunday mornings, March 10 and March 17, at the end of the worship services. This 145 researcher explained the project to the congregation and utilized the graphic slide (illustrated in Appendix B) to help illustrate its content, duration, and requirements. Recruitment of Participants During the two weeks of advertising the action research project, this researcher received twenty-one responses demonstrating interest in participation. For each response, an email reply was immediately sent with an attached consent form (Appendix E) and a request for a phone conversation. Correspondence with all interested individuals included confirming they were eligible to be in this study. The four-fold requirements for involvement included being a member or regular attendee of Klondike Church, professing faith in Jesus Christ as Lord, being a baptized Christian, and being eighteen years old or older. Twelve participants and two alternates were finalized to join the project by March 23, 2024, and they were contacted by email and text message to confirm their selection. The participants were divided equally, consisting of six men and six women.2 The Pre-Intervention The Pre-Intervention began with this researcher contacting all participants via email to arrange a phone interview to discuss the project in more detail and to ask pre-planned interview questions (Appendix H). These questions were developed to help the researcher understand the participants’ current intellectual comprehension and experience concerning the Lord’s Supper. The interviews were conducted over the phone and were limited to thirty minutes. This researcher chose to type out the answers concurrent with the interview instead of recording them, 2 To protect their identities, the names of the participants are withheld in this project. Instead, the names used in this thesis are pseudonyms. The female participants in the project are “Esther,” “Phoebe,” “Lydia,” “Priscilla,” “Mary,” and “Jael.” The male participants of the project are “John,” “Joseph,” “Job,” “John Mark,” “Josiah,” and “Luke.” 146 requesting the participant to listen as the researcher read back to them what was recorded to confirm accuracy. At the end of the interview, the participant was emailed a printed consent form to sign (Appendix E) and a copy of the pre-intervention Likert Survey (Appendix G). An explanation of the expectation of each survey to be completed and turned in before the first class on Wednesday evening, April 3, was provided. This gave the participants an approximate window of one week to answer the survey and fill out the consent form. The verbal instructions emphasized that the statements recorded in the Likert Survey should not be researched, studied, or looked up in any way. Participants were also instructed not to choose answers randomly but to circle neutral if unsure of the statement’s meaning. The participants were encouraged to make it a goal to complete the survey in ten minutes or less. Alternates were also given the Likert Survey a week before the first class to complete with the same instructions. This survey was written to gauge how each participant understood the themes that were taught during the six weeks. Fifty-one close-ended statements made up the content of this Likert Survey. The Intervention This researcher regularly communicated with the participants and the alternates via weekly email, text messaging, and verbal announcements in class. An email reminder was sent out Monday, April 1, preparing the students for the commencement of the first class on Wednesday, April 3, at 6:30 p.m. All six classes were held in the Klondike Church sanctuary. All participants and alternates were given a binder, pen, and a full set of class notes (Appendix F) to utilize weekly during the sessions and to keep as a resource. 147 Sessions One to Three Ten of the twelve participants and both alternates attended the first session. One participant was missing due to illness, and one had already notified the researcher that they could not make the first session. Both absent participants were emailed access to the video file to watch on Thursday, April 4, and a set of notes to be able to review before the next session. The meeting began with a brief introduction of the expectations for the class, prayer, and then the commencement of the first teaching. The first class was sixty-one minutes long. The content of session one centered on the life of the church father, Justin Martyr, his historical context, and a reading of the researcher’s translation of chapters 65-67 of his First Apology. This led to a study of different names utilized for the Lord’s Supper and its nature as an ordinance and sacrament of the church. Nine minutes of questions and answers at the end of class made the entire evening seventy minutes long. The night concluded with prayer by the researcher. Table 3.6. is provided as a visual representation of session one. 148 All twelve participants and both alternates attended session two. An email reminder was sent out Tuesday, April 9, preparing the students for the second session on Wednesday, April 10, at 6:30 p.m. However, due to a dangerous storm, the second session was canceled, and the participants were notified by email and text message. A makeup date of Sunday night, May 5, at 5:30 pm, was proposed due to the storm. All participants and alternates replied via email or text message that this date would be acceptable. A new reminder email for session two was sent out Tuesday, April 16, preparing the class for the Wednesday, April 17 meeting. The meeting began with prayer and a brief review of who Justin Martyr was and the context of the second-century church. The first part of the class dealt with Justin Martyr’s chapter 66 of the First Apology and how he describes the Eucharist as not ordinary bread or drink. This was followed by examining how the Lord’s Supper is a meal with God. The class then surveyed the different references to God eating with His people from the Garden of Eden to the New Earth. The next part of the class dealt with the Agape meal of the early church and why it fell into disuse. The session concluded by discussing the importance of prayer and words in the Eucharist and the elements of bread and wine. The total teaching was 149 fifty-seven minutes long, and there were seventeen minutes of questions and answers for a total of seventy-four minutes. This class was also video recorded and could be reviewed by the participants. The video was sent to the class at the end of the week, along with an email update of what to expect in the next class session. Table 3.7. is provided as a visual representation of session two. An email reminder was sent out Tuesday, April 23, preparing the participants for session three on Wednesday, April 24, at 6:30 p.m. This email also included information about a desired focus group to meet the following Wednesday, May 1, for one hour before class time. Five participants, Phoebe, John, Job, Jael, and Luke, responded to the email that they would like to participate, as well as one alternate. All twelve participants and both alternates attended session three on Wednesday, April 24, at 6:30 p.m. After prayer and a brief review of Justin Martyr and his historical context, the session commenced with teaching on who the rightful participants of the Lord’s Supper are 150 based on chapters 65 and 66 of the First Apology. Verbal fencing of the Lord’s Table and self-examination by the participants were emphasized. Justin Martyr’s threefold requirements for participation in the Eucharist were reviewed, along with their biblical foundations. It was demonstrated that one must be a believing participant, a baptized participant, and a faithful participant. Justin’s description of the baptism of a new convert was contrasted with the description found in the Didache. The lecture for the third class was a total of fifty-five minutes long. There were sixteen minutes of questions and answers, totaling seventy-one minutes for session three. This class was also video recorded and emailed to the students by the end of the week. Table 3.8. is provided as a visual representation of session three. 151 The First Focus Group An email reminder for the focus group and fourth class was sent out on Tuesday, April 30. The five confirmed participants, Phoebe, John, Job, Jael, and Luke, and one alternate came to the focus group meeting on Wednesday, May 1, at 5:30 p.m. The meeting lasted for one hour. An extra participant, Priscilla, also came to the meeting. Dinner was provided for the participants in the focus group, which was held in one of the church’s classrooms in the educational building. Participants shared many different ideas about their intellectual growth from the first three sessions. Since these discussions directly relate to the study’s results, these will be addressed in Chapter 4, “Results.” Sessions Four to Six All twelve participants and both alternates attended session four on Wednesday, May 1, at 6:30 p.m. After prayer and a brief review of Justin Martyr and his historical context, the session commenced with teaching how to remember Jesus when participating in the Lord’s Supper based on chapter 66 of the First Apology. The context of Paul’s record of the Lord’s Supper from I Corinthians 11 was studied next. Then the content of the class shifted to the meaning of the elements of bread and wine and what is remembered when one communes in the Lord’s Supper. Emphasis was placed on how to remember Jesus in the elements of bread and wine. Last, the original purpose of Paul’s teaching on the Lord’s Supper was considered. The wrongful emphasis of the Corinthian church was explained along with Paul’s redirection of the Corinthian congregation to the original institution of the Lord’s Supper by Jesus. This was followed by a time of answering common excuses offered by participants for not participating in Communion. 152 The fourth teaching lasted a total of fifty-one minutes in length. The questions and answers session of the class was a total of fourteen minutes, making the entire session sixty-five minutes long. This class was also video recorded and emailed to the students by the end of the week. Table 3.9. is provided as a visual representation of session four. An email reminder for the fifth makeup class was sent out on Friday, May 3. This email prepared the participants for the session on Sunday, May 5, at 5:30 p.m. It also asked the participants to consider joining the final focus group, which would take place at a time and location to be determined following the sixth class. All twelve participants and both alternates attended the fifth make-up session. After prayer and a brief review of Justin Martyr and his historical context, the session commenced with a study of chapter 66 of the First Apology and the presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. The teaching defined and explained the Roman Catholic position of transubstantiation and then entered the historical controversy concerning how Jesus is present in the Lord’s Table. Positions surveyed included the memorialist, “bare” memorialist, real presence, and spiritual presence 153 views. Other writings of Justin Martyr were also examined to demonstrate his teaching was not a type of sacramental cannibalism. The New Testament, Ignatius of Antioch, and Irenaeus were utilized to argue that Justin’s realistic language of flesh and blood was in response to gnostic and docetic theology prevalent in this era. It was shown that it is anachronistic to read back into both the apostolic and these ante-Nicene church fathers’ views that had not yet developed. Last, John 6 was studied, emphasizing receiving Jesus through faith and spiritual eating and drinking. The fifth teaching lasted a total of fifty-nine minutes in length. The questions and answers session of the class was a total of twenty-six minutes, making the entire session seventy-seven minutes long. This class was also video recorded and emailed to the students by the end of the week. Table 3.10. is provided as a visual representation of session five. 154 An email reminder for the final session was sent out on Wednesday, May 8. This email prepared the participants for the sixth session that evening at 6:30 p.m. It also reminded the participants to consider joining the final focus group on Sunday, May 12, at 6 p.m. Those who responded to the email and said that they would like to participate included Jael, Mary, Luke, Phoebe, Joseph, and John. All twelve participants and both alternates attended the final session. After prayer and a brief review of Justin Martyr and his historical context, the session commenced with a study of chapter 67 of Justin Martyr’s First Apology and how there is a communal nature to communion. 1 Corinthians 11 was utilized to demonstrate the importance of community in worship and the church as a family. The background to 1 Corinthians 11 and problems in the Corinthian meal were studied, including divisions at the table and the cultural values of Corinth influencing how the church came together. Justin’s church community, as reflected in chapter 67, was contrasted with Corinth, and it was shown from Scripture that the Lord’s Supper observance should be a regular rhythm of the church’s life. Last, the approaches to the Lord’s Supper during the COVID-19 pandemic were considered and contrasted with how Justin’s church community ministered to the sick and those missing in worship. It was argued that the Lord’s Supper could be a means of ministry for the local church today. The sixth teaching lasted a total of fifty-five minutes in length. The final class had seventeen minutes of questions and answers, totaling seventy-two minutes. This class was also video recorded and emailed to the students by the end of the week. Table 3.11. is provided as a visual representation of session six. 155 The Final Focus Group An email reminder for the final focus group was sent out on Saturday, May 11, for the meeting on Sunday, May 12, at 6:00 p.m. that went until 7:15 p.m. The meeting was held in one of the church’s classrooms in the educational building. All six participants who responded to the initial emails attended the meeting. The participant list included Jael, Mary, Luke, Phoebe, Joseph, and John. Since these discussions directly relate to the study’s results, these will be highlighted in Chapter 4, “Results.” The researcher sent a final email thanking the group for participating in the project on Saturday, May 17. This email included links for the group to read translations of the Didache, the letters of Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr’s three works, First Apology, Second Apology, and Dialogue with Trypho, and Against Heresies by Irenaeus if they would like to continue their studies in the early church. This concluded the Implementation of the Intervention Design. The intervention began with gaining the church leadership’s approval and concluded with the last 156 focus group. This section has provided a narrative of what transpired in the project. The data that was collected will be analyzed in the next chapter. 157 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS This chapter seeks to explain the results of the intervention in Chapter 3. The problem stated in Chapter One was that members of Klondike Church lacked a comprehensive historical biblical understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper. The thesis of this action research project is as follows: If Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Lord’s Supper is purposefully studied in the light of Scripture, then Klondike Church’s participation will be biblically faithful. This chapter will seek to demonstrate the impact a small group study on the Lord’s Supper, focusing on chapters 65-67 of Justin Martyr’s First Apology and compared with Scripture, had on the participants. Collective Results This researcher desired that the Likert survey scores would demonstrate that the participants’ theological understanding of the Lord’s Supper improved significantly, signifying comprehension. This chapter will highlight the survey when the scores of more than one participant moved a minimum of two points. It is this researcher’s conclusion that this objective was accomplished. Concerning the focus groups, the general response of those who participated was exciting and had a positive tone. Most voiced gratitude for the classes, for the teaching, the question-and-answer times, and for the class notes provided by the researcher. There were no pauses in the conversations as participants eagerly shared how the class was impacting them. 158 Another goal of the researcher was to see a shift in how the participants approached the Lord’s Table from morbid introspection or flippant receiving to a contemplative remembering of the work of Christ on the Cross. There was an expectation that the participants would be spiritually revived as they partake in this church ordinance each week. This expectation included an awareness of the presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper as an act of worship. The desired outcome of the small group study would be faithful participants who approach the Lord’s Supper in a worthy manner. There was a desire to see participants transformed with a full and correct understanding of communion. Each time they would receive the bread and cup of the Lord’s Supper, it would remove their forgetfulness of Jesus’ work on the Cross. This would lead to a recommitment to live for Christ and deep thankfulness for His grace. The results reported in this chapter include various categories of transformative shifts in the participants concerning important doctrinal and experiential matters. The questions that impacted the participants in the small group are summarized as follows: What is the value of church history outside of Scripture? What should the proper names and classifications for the Lord’s Supper be? Is there an importance to the meals of the Bible? Who are the rightful participants for partaking in the Lord’s Table, including whether baptism is required? Is it the responsibility of church leadership to guard the communion table? Can sin be an obstruction of rightful participation in communion? How can a believer remember Christ in the Lord’s Table? How is Jesus present in the bread and cup? What is the meaning of the bread and the cup? What kind of an encounter is the Lord’s Supper with God? How frequently should a church take communion? What is the responsibility of the participant to fellow Christians at the Lord’s Table? Is there a need to serve those missing from the worship of the Lord’s Supper? Should the Lord’s Supper be a catalyst to help the poor and homebound members of the church family? 159 Data Analysis This chapter will utilize a combination of Likert scores, conversations from the focus groups, and interviews to demonstrate that there were significant changes in theological understanding and practice in the way some small group study participants now approach the Lord’s Supper. Likert survey scores clearly showed when participants moved in their understanding of major themes concerning communion, and the interviews and focus group conversations clarified how this changed their worship. Since this study was both historical and theological in nature, focusing on the writings of second-century church father Justin Martyr as a framework for understanding the teaching of Scripture, this will be the starting point. Church History and Practice In the opening interviews, each participant was asked, “Do you think the ancient church practices of communion should influence how we understand Scripture or practice the Lord’s Supper today?” Jael quickly responded to this question. “That’s a tough question for me. I think we should practice the teachings of the Bible. Whether the churches were doing it properly, I don’t know.”1 When Phoebe was asked this question, there was a bit of hesitation and a long pause before answering. She finally responded, “Before the churches became Roman Catholic, yes.”2 In her opening interview, Esther said, “We should stick to what the Bible teaches us. Different churches and denominations have different viewpoints on what is and is not accepted. It depends.”3 Lydia was the strongest in her distrust of church history. “No. Just go with what’s 1 “Jael,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 2 “Phoebe,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 3 “Esther,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 160 in the Bible. I think you could use something to expand upon it, providing it is 100 percent biblically sound and not a person’s opinion.”4 In contrast to these answers, Joseph was more confident in church history. “Yes, I would say we should presume they were correct unless Scripture contradicts their practices.”5 Joseph’s tone toward the church fathers and the practice of the ancient church reflects the new attitude developed by the small group participants. The first focus group, held Wednesday, May 1, at 5:30 p.m., demonstrated greater confidence in the writings and practices of the early church. When asked the same question, Job stated, “I have been shocked to learn of the mountain of information from the church fathers. We have a very good idea of what the early church looked like. The church fathers give us insight into how people in that time and culture understood the Scriptures. This is very valuable. They don’t replace the Scriptures, but they help us.”6 Luke concurred with these sentiments about church history. I was woefully ignorant of church history. Especially first and second-century church history. I have since started reading. There is such a rich resource that we have literally forgotten about. We think if it didn’t happen from the Reformation forward, it didn’t count. This is a big deal. I thought enough about it that I went out and bought the First Apology and the Second Apology [of Justin Martyr].7 Priscilla also shared with everyone that she had developed excitement about church history and bought a copy of First Apology and Second Apology. She pulled her copy from her binder to show the group. Jael was surprised by “how much I really did not know that I thought I 4 “Lydia,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 5 “Joseph,” phone interview by author, March 30, 2024. 6 “Job,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 7 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 161 knew.”8 Priscilla shared, “I just thought the Lord’s Supper was like the Leonardo Da Vinci picture. What I learned now, going into the history of the Lord’s Supper is amazing.”9 The second focus group meeting occurred on Sunday, May 12, at 6:00 p.m. The affirmation of the importance of ancient church practices was emphasized again. Luke expressed profound gratitude and a desire to know more about the early church. “I think I’ve always been interested in the early church fathers, but I’ve never dug in and read up on it. This opened the door. I’ve downloaded additional stuff and bought some more books. This was a gateway to more learning. I found the Didache online.”10 He later shared a deficit in his previous studies. “The big thing for me was the fact that all the historical things that I had been reading were reaching back 100, 150, or 200 years old. I wasn’t looking back far enough.”11 Jael was encouraged and enlightened by studying Justin’s historical record. She said, “Justin Martyr’s writings show us the value of the Lord’s Supper. It helped the culture of the time, those opposing what the Christians were doing. Opposing what the sacraments truly mean. What it means to be brothers and sisters in Christ. It is enlightening to know what a service and the church looked like as well.”12 Reading Justin Martyr’s record in First Apology renewed Joseph’s confidence in the importance of church history and Scriptural practice. He noted that “Scripture should always be our supreme authority. But if every Christian has done something for 1900 years, we should ask if we have deviated from something or if we are wrong. Deviating from 2000 years of history, you better have good biblical reason.”13 John recognized an impact 8 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. ` 9 “Priscilla,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 10 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 11 Ibid. 12 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 13 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 162 from reading about the worship service of Justin’s church in chapter 67 of First Apology. He said, “The fact that the second-generation church was adhering to the apostles’ teaching and the reading of the prophets in their service. They had something much of the modern church has lost. They specifically held to the apostles’ teaching and the prophets.”14 It was agreed by the group this should always be a Christian’s foundation. Jael used her new knowledge of Justin Martyr in her day-to-day life. She shared, “I have shared this class with some of my coworkers. I open it [the conversations] up talking about Justin Martyr and what he did, being one of the first apologists. It gave me the opportunity to provide a testimony. It is something I will continue to spread. It is a great stepping stone to open up the testimony.”15 John shared about the ability to use his new understanding of church history to speak to leaders in another church community. “I have returned to my [former] church culture and spoke to pastors about the Lord's Supper, and the response has been overwhelming. The ideas and concepts of the early church, what they did, and how they practiced it. I have shared 1 Corinthians 11 and helped people see what the context is, and it’s been kind of a common ground bonding between my early Christianity and where I am today.”16 Mary shared her educational background and how this new knowledge has been encouraging. “Having had a [Roman] Catholic grade school education, I always appreciated old church stuff. I was somewhat embarrassed by this because I thought it [ancient church history] did not belong to us. Now I feel like I can confidently stand on the church fathers and say these are ours. This has given me confidence that this belongs to me. I can speak knowledgeably on 14 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 15 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 16 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 163 them.”17 Joseph responded to Mary’s new confidence. He shared, “It reminds me of a quote, ‘I don’t have to turn the church fathers into reformed Baptists, but they [Roman Catholics] have to make them [Roman] Catholic.’”18 This change in understanding of the value of ancient church practices is also evidenced by the scores on the Likert survey. The statement the participants were to respond to was, “Church history outside the Bible should help us learn how to worship God accurately.” Jael and John Mark moved from neutral to agree. Mary moved from agree to agree strongly. Luke moved from neutral to strongly agree. Priscilla and Esther moved from disagree to strongly agree. Lydia, who was the most adamant against using ancient church practices in her opening interview, moved from strongly disagree to agree. Table 4.1. is provided as a visual representation of this specific Likert survey question. 17 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 18 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 164 Biblical Foundations The first and second class sessions were titled “Introduction to Justin Martyr and the Lord’s Supper” and “A Meal with God: Foundations of the Lord’s Supper,” respectively. These classes were primarily focused on intellectually explaining the foundations of the Lord’s Supper. Some of the participants had shifts in understanding concerning proper designations of the Lord’s Supper and its foundations. Table 4.2. is provided as a visual representation of the shifts in the understanding of the proper designations. 165 Names and the Lord’s Supper In the first session on April 3, an explanation of the names that have historically been utilized for the Lord’s Supper and the biblical evidence that could be used to support their usage was provided. It was noted that communion had become a name for the Lord’s Supper in the English language because of the King James Version translation of 1 Corinthians 10:16, but κοινωνία could more accurately be translated as sharing, participation, or fellowship. This seemed to connect with some of the participants, as a change of confidence in the term was reflected in their scores. However, two participants strengthened their assurance in the label despite this teaching. For four of the participants, there was a solidification of understanding as to why the Lord’s Supper can be called an ordinance, and three participants grew in their confidence in calling it a sacrament. When explaining the use of the term Eucharist in Justin Martyr’s writings and Scripture, this researcher did not expect more than an intellectual change in the participants. The first focus group conversation demonstrated there was also a transformation of practice that came from this part of the teaching. The teaching on the name Eucharist and the verbal forms of the word used in the New Testament seemed to have a profound effect on the participants. When asked what stood out to the group so far in the class, the alternate in attendance spoke up quickly, sharing how he was “…excited at the thankfulness of the Lord’s Supper. I was always trying to figure out if I was taking this [the Lord’s Supper] properly. The focus of it being thanksgiving was something I was excited about these last weeks.”19 Job seconded this emphasis, stating that what changed for him was “the focus on it being the Eucharist. The thanksgiving. That’s what it is 19 “Alternate,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 166 really all about.”20 Luke confirmed that for him, “I think it’s deepened the experience. There is a quality to the depth of the meaning. Not that I ever thought it was a mechanical repetition. The more you study it, the more thankfulness affects your heart.”21 Priscilla excitedly shared, “We should call it the Eucharist from now on. It is about thankfulness. We should be thankful and make this the emphasis of the service. We need to be thankful as we take it.”22 John commented in the first focus group on something that highlighted the new importance of the term to him. He was encouraged by what he had taken for granted for many years and now could explain halfway through the study. “I now see how much the Spirit of God had worked in my heart in the Lord’s Supper in the past, and I didn’t realize how much of it was there until I was taught it. I now understand it from a mental perspective.”23 This researcher returned to analyze the participants’ initial interviews and observed a common theme in their language. Many of the participants spoke about the importance of thankfulness in their participation before the study. John’s statement of not realizing “how much was there [in my heart] until I was taught it” was reflected in their experience and participation already. Though many participants had little understanding of the word Eucharist before this intervention, this idea of giving thanks was integral to their practice. Lydia shared in her interview how she prays when preparing to receive communion. “Lord, examine my heart. Reveal to me anything that has not been dealt with. Forgive me. Help me to turn away from sin. Lord, thank You for the sacrifice You made on my behalf.”24 For Josiah, preparing to take the 20 “Job,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 21 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 22 “Priscilla,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 23 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 24 “Lydia,” comment from phone interview, March 27, 2024. 167 elements included thanksgiving as well. “I pray prayers of thanksgiving. I am thankful that Christ took my sins away from me. That I can sit before God with the robes of Christ instead of sitting before Him in my sin.”25 John Mark shared that when he is preparing to receive the bread and cup, “the only thing I am thinking about is thankfulness for what He went through for me.”26 In the second focus group, the researcher asked, “What has changed in your understanding and partaking in the Lord’s Supper since the beginning of this class?” The responses of the participants were very lively. Jael’s comment summarizes the group’s thoughts: “When it comes to taking the Lord’s Supper, I always prayed. This strengthened my faith that prayer is the right thing to do. Giving the glory to Him [Jesus], thanking Him for his sacrifice prior to taking the bread and wine.”27 Again, thanksgiving was now a key part of participation for Jael. Meals and the Lord’s Supper In the second session on April 17, the researcher surveyed the importance of meals in Scripture and how God has utilized them effectively in His people. Some participants moved intellectually in their understanding of this point. An explanation of the importance of words and prayer attached to the Lord’s Supper was included, distinguishing it from an ordinary meal and the elements from being a common bread and a common cup. It was emphasized that the participants should not hear the words of the institution of the Lord’s Supper as the minister speaking to them. Instead, they should hear the words as if Jesus is directly speaking to them as His family. This makes the Lord’s Table a meal with God, not just a meal with the gathered 25 “Josiah,” phone interview by author, March 28, 2024. 26 “John Mark,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 27 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 168 church. Significant changes occurred in the participants’ understanding of the Lord’s Supper as a grace for the church and its importance to remove doubt and unbelief. In the first focus group, a major participation transformation was expressed by John after hearing this teaching. John stated how beautiful the words attached to the Lord’s Table are, calling the church to Christ. “I grew up with a sense of dread and fear with the Lord’s Table because of the culture of the church I grew up in. Now I see how God calls us to come and wants us to see Christ and what Christ did. That is embedded in my mind. The beauty of the change from trepidation.”28 Job shared how it changed the way he hears the words of Scripture on Sunday morning. “The idea of hearing Jesus speaking to you directly. The words have importance.”29 Table 4.3. is provided as a visual representation of the shifts in the understanding of the Lord’s Supper as a meal with God. 28 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 29 “Job,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 169 170 Participants In the Lord’s Supper In the third session on April 24, the teaching focused on who the rightful participants in the Lord’s Supper are. Justin Martyr’s three qualifications comprised most of the teaching, comparing his words with Scripture. The three requirements Justin gave can be summarized as a believing participant, a baptized participant, and a faithful participant. Before the class, participants had very different perspectives of who could rightly participate in this church ordinance that conflicted with these three requirements. In her pre-class interview, Jael was asked, “What would you say if you could introduce the Lord’s Supper on Sunday?” Her answer was succinct and clear: “You must be saved and believe on the Lord Jesus Christ.”30 After the class, there was a change in her views on the requirement of being a baptized Christian to come to the Lord’s Table. Her scores shifted dramatically in her Likert survey. Under the statement, “Only born-again and baptized Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper,” she moved from neutral to strongly agree. Under the statement, “Water baptism has no relationship to communion,” she went from neutral to strongly disagree. Priscilla described two prerequisites before taking the Lord’s Supper. “Number one, a believer. You need to believe in Christ. Number two, you have to ask for forgiveness. You can’t just assume it is going to happen.”31 Her scores on these issues did not shift in the survey. Priscilla continued to strongly agree that water baptism has no relationship to communion. She disagreed that only born-again and baptized Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper. 30 “Jael,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 31 “Priscilla,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 171 Luke’s only answer regarding who can take the Lord’s Supper before the class was “a faithful believer.”32 After the class, his views on the importance of baptism markedly shifted. Under the statement, “Only born-again and baptized Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper,” he moved from neutral to strongly agree. Under the statement, “Water baptism has no relationship to communion,” he went from neutral to disagree. When Phoebe was asked in her initial interview, “What would you say if you could introduce the Lord’s Supper on Sunday?,” she gave a strong presentation. “To take the Lord’s Supper, first of all, you must realize who and what Jesus did for us. You must be a Christian. You must believe in Jesus, for it doesn’t serve any purpose otherwise. If you don’t believe in Jesus, you shouldn’t take it because it won’t have any meaning to you.”33 It was noted by this researcher that baptism was not mentioned. However, her Likert scores changed on this point. Under the statement, “Water baptism has no relationship to communion,” she went from disagree to strongly disagree. Under the statement, “Only born-again and baptized Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper,” she moved from agree to strongly agree. There was a strengthening in the importance of baptism to the participant in taking the Lord’s Table. It should be mentioned that the teaching in session three surveyed the issue of whether baptism by immersion and baptism as a believer should be requirements for taking the Lord’s Supper. This led to a discussion about those who have theological commitments in favor of paedobaptism as a valid baptism and whether they should be admitted to the Lord’s Table if their profession of faith and life is genuine. This caused a variance in conviction among some of the participants because of the language of “baptized as believers.” Joseph moved from strongly 32 “Luke,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 33 “Phoebe,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 172 agree to neutral, Lydia moved from agree to neutral, and Mary moved from disagree to neutral. Josiah went from disagree to strongly disagree. Table 4.4. is provided as a visual representation of the survey responses concerning rightful participants. 173 The third class also discussed the responsibility of the church’s leadership to guard and fence the communion table. In her initial interview, Lydia shared her experience before joining Klondike Church. She had only known a very inclusive experience, with no fencing at the Lord’s Table. She shared, “I don’t recall a time where it was said don’t come up and take it if you are not a Christian. It was open to anybody.”34 She stated that for her, “The most important thing is to make sure you are a Christian. The Bible states that there could be dangerous consequences if you are not.”35 Her views transitioned from neutrality to strong agreement that the church leadership has the right to refuse communion to an individual. Participants were asked about their views on guarding the communion table during the first focus group. Jael answered from the perspective of a church member, “My mind shifted because it is important who should be taking the sacraments. The leaders should be doing their job, watching out for souls. So I shifted.”36 On the Likert survey, Jael moved from agree to strongly disagree on the statement, “The church has no right to refuse communion to an individual.” She also shifted in her understanding from neutral to strongly agree on the statement, “Church leadership has the right to refuse communion to an individual.” Eight of the twelve participants reflected a similar change. John noted tension from the perspective of a church leader seeking to be faithful in guarding the Lord’s Supper. “When you’re giving communion, and you have people coming through, and you sense something, you don’t always know the people. It gets a little bit touchy when some [individuals] come through [the line to partake]. Especially children. . . . It is the criteria that matters [for who can receive the Lord’s 34 “Lydia,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 35 Ibid. 36 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 174 Supper].”37 Table 4.5. is provided as a visual representation of participants’ views regarding leadership refusing communion to an individual. The third class also discussed the importance of self-examination when coming to the Lord’s Supper from the context of being a faithful participant. In the initial interview, the question was asked of Job, “Could you describe parts of the Lord’s Supper that might make you apprehensive?” Job quickly replied, “I think that self-examination is important. Am I worthy to do this? This is always on your mind. It is such a solemn thing. I am making sure I am confessed up. I am always wondering if there is something I have not confessed to.”38 37 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 38 “Job,” phone interview by author, March 30, 2024. 175 The first focus group was asked what they felt it meant to partake of the Lord’s Supper in a worthy manner. Luke quickly responded, “Your heart has to be right and there, present.”39 John excitedly spoke next, “Regardless of where I flop during the week and where I fall, He is faithful and just calls me to come to His table.”40 Analysis of the Likert surveys revealed that only four participants registered any change in statements surrounding self-examination. All four participants strengthened their understanding of this point. Job, Priscilla, John Mark, Luke, Phoebe, John, Joseph, Lydia, and Jael remained strongly agreed. Table 4.6. is provided as a visual representation of the participants’ change on this position. Remembering Christ in the Bread and Cup The fourth class, held on May 1, discussed remembering Jesus in the Lord’s Supper. In the initial interviews, the question was asked, “What do you think about when you are participating in communion?” The answers varied. Luke briefly commented, “I often think about my failures.”41 John shared, “A lot of times when I’m thinking, as I take the bread, I think about 39 “Luke,” Comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 40 “John,” Comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 41 “Luke,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 176 the work, the labor, the things Christ did when He was there. Not necessarily the Cross, but the feeding of the five thousand, the training of the disciples.”42 When Priscilla was asked about her past church experiences with communion, she shared: When I went to another church, it was like going through the motions. We dipped the bread into the glass and kneeled on the altar and went back to your seat. We didn’t get the dynamics of it really, what we were supposed to be doing. No one ever said how you’re supposed to pray when you receive the Lord’s Supper because no one ever taught what the Lord’s Supper was intended for.43 Joseph’s answer was centered on grace and redemption, but not the actual events of the Cross. “I’m thinking about how good God’s grace and mercy are for us. How He’s redeemed me, not just from the consequences of my sin, but lots of my sin itself.”44 Mary’s answer was more directed toward the Cross of Jesus and His body and blood, as well as her personal spiritual state. “I contemplate the sufferings of Christ. I contemplate my own sinfulness. I think about the current glory He is in.”45 John Mark shared, “Communion is an opportunity for the church to give thanks for the body and blood that was beaten, bruised, and spilled for our transgressions.”46 Mary and John Mark’s answers were more in line with the teaching in the fourth session. Four statements in the survey were centered around this theme. The first statement, “Faith is strengthened in the Lord’s Supper as the believer freshly remembers Jesus’ death and atonement,” found no changes in the participants who all chose “strongly agree” on the initial and exit survey. The second statement was “Christians taking communion should consider Jesus’ death at the Cross.” All the participants chose “strongly 42 “John,” phone interview by author, March 28, 2024. 43 “Priscilla,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 44 “Joseph,” phone interview by author, March 30, 2024. 45 “Mary,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 46 “John Mark,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 177 agree” on the initial and exit survey except Josiah, who moved from agree to strongly agree. The third statement was “Christians taking communion should consider their sins and Jesus’ work on the Cross.” All participants stayed at the answer of strongly agree except two, Priscilla and John Mark, who moved from agree to strongly agree. In the fourth statement, “Taking the Lord’s Supper opposes the forgetfulness of Jesus’ death in the believer’s heart,” more changes were recorded. Lydia and Josiah chose agree on both their initial and exit surveys. Jael, Joseph, Job, John, and Phoebe selected strongly agree on both their initial and exit surveys. Mary noted on her first Likert survey in the margin, “I don’t understand the question,” and marked neutral. She moved from neutral to strongly agree, along with Esther and Priscilla. Table 4.7. is provided as a visual representation of participants’ movement on the question. In her initial interview, Phoebe was asked, “What do you think about when you are participating in communion?” She responded, “What occurred, what He did for us, His sacrifice, that He wants us to remember His sacrifice for us. I am grateful.”47 The second focus group also demonstrated the change reflected in her survey. Phoebe emphasized the importance of her mental worship to partake rightly. She stated, “It [The Lord’s Supper] is reflecting on what 47 “Phoebe,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 178 happened on the Cross. I go through that in my mind. He was torn apart for me. What a wonderful gift. It refreshes my heart.”48 For Luke, he explained his newfound understanding of Jesus’ death and forgiveness by reflecting on Jesus’ body and blood. Luke shared how the importance of rightful participation and remembering had “smacked me in between the eyes. How do we get there in the Lord’s Supper? I feel the Lord’s Supper is a key element in the regular forgiveness process.”49 The Presence of Christ The fifth class was held on May 5 and dealt with the presence of Jesus in the Lord’s Supper. This class dealt with the elements of the bread and cup, the physical body of Jesus, and how God is encountered in the Lord’s Supper. The case was made that Jesus is truly present with the elements and the one who receives them worthily, but His corporal body is in heaven at the right hand of God. This position was contrasted with the Roman Catholic view of Transubstantiation. Three participants in their initial interviews, Job, Jael, and Mary, only briefly mentioned these themes. Job mentioned dogmatically, “I don’t believe [in the Lord’s Supper] it’s the actual blood and body, its symbolic.”50 After the first three classes, it seemed Job had begun to think in different ways about this issue. In the first focus group, the researcher asked the participants what they found most confusing about communion. Job pondered aloud, “I am anxious to hear a discussion about the elements. Do they really change? I think I see it more as a representation, a symbol. But I am anxious to hear and learn a little more about that.”51 There seemed to be new questions in Job’s 48 “Phoebe,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 49 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 50 “Job,” phone interview by author, March 30, 2024. 51 “Job,” comment from a focus group participant, May 1, 2024. 179 mind developing. There were noticeable differences in his answers to his surveys. On the statement, “The Bread is the body of Jesus,” he moved from disagree to agree. On the statement, “Jesus is not present at the communion meal since it is a memorial,” he was the only one in the class who shifted from agree to disagree. Before the class, Jael already had strong experience thinking on the presence of Christ. She was asked, “What do you think about when you are participating in communion?” She answered, “I think about the presence of the Lord. I believe He is there. When I think about His presence it overwhelms me, that He is right here. Jesus is right here with us.”52 Mary also understood Jesus’ presence at the Lord’s Table before the class began. “There is some way in which we are present at the Cross, see [Jesus] crucified before our eyes, and behold Christ’s crucified body in our hands. It restores me and reminds me of what matters.”53 By the completion of the class, she seemed to develop greater theological clarity on this issue. Mary shared: The thing that really helped me was distinguishing between His [Jesus’] human nature and His divine nature. How could He, who was limited by space physically, be with us? His divine nature is with us even if His physical nature is elsewhere. God fills heaven and Earth, but He also chose the tabernacle as his place of effective presence. David says, ‘Where can I go from your sight, but he also wants to go to the temple of the Lord.’54 This researcher acknowledges that the language of the Likert survey statement may have confused the participants. The statement was, “Jesus’ body is only in heaven, and He is not with the bread.” The second clause of the sentence could have been more specific, “and His physical body is not with the bread.” It can be defended that there would not have been a variance in the scores if this had been clarified. The same is true with the survey statement, “The bread of 52 “Jael,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 53 “Mary,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 54 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 180 communion represents death.” This is an ambiguous statement and was not precise enough to be consistently understood in the same way by the participants. Clarification as to Jesus’ death or Jesus’ body dying may have brought a more consistent interpretation. Table 4.8. is provided as a visual representation of the changes in some participants’ understanding of the presence of Christ. 181 The second focus group conversation demonstrated how well some of the participants knew their position on Jesus’ presence, especially in contrast to the Roman Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation. Joseph confidently shared his views on Transubstantiation and Justin Martyr. “Justin says this is not ordinary bread. A [Roman] Catholic would say this [the Eucharist] is not anymore bread. We have a theology that has some level of disagreement with them because we don’t believe they are on par with Scripture. It gives a great reason to go back to Scripture. You don’t believe the same thing the early church fathers do.”55 Phoebe said she clearly understood that “His [Jesus’] body does not come down. If He is God, He could have given Him His flesh and blood right there [in the upper room]. There is 55 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 182 symbolism. There are parables. I do believe Jesus is there spiritually at communion. He is handing the bread and cup to us with a smile on His face.”56 Joseph also found J. C. Ryle’s argument concerning Jesus’ body discussed in the class teaching was important to his understanding. Ryle states: When our Lord rose again from the dead, He rose with a real human body,—a body which could not be in two places at once,—a body of which the angels said, “He is not here, but is risen.” (Luke 24:6). . . . “if the body with which our blessed Lord ascended up into heaven can be in heaven, and on earth, and on ten thousand communion tables at one and the same time, it cannot be a real human body at all. Yet that He did ascend with a real Human body, although a glorified body, is one of the prime articles of the Christian faith, and one that we ought never to let go!”57 Joseph shared, “If He [Jesus] is in heaven and on 10,000 tables at the same time, how could he be a man? He would then no longer be truly man and God now. He retains His humanity.”58 Frequency of Participation The sixth class, held on May 8, discussed the communal nature of communion and ministry through the Lord’s Supper. Issues included how frequently the Lord’s Supper should be taken as a church, the responsibilities of church members to one another in removing division, taking the Eucharist to those who are homebound, and Justin’s description of an offering in worship. Before the class began, there were different experiences and perspectives on the correct frequency of participation in the Lord’s Supper. The participants were asked, “Please describe how you took the Lord’s Supper in the past before coming to our congregation.” Mary recalled 56 “Phoebe,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 57 J. C. Ryle, Knots Untied: Being Plain Statements on Disputed Points in Religion (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2016), 227. 58 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 183 her childhood. “When I was a little kid, it was once a quarter. I have been to churches that did it once a month. That was the first time I started to really think this is a filler right before the church committee meeting.”59 On the Likert survey statement, “The Lord’s Supper should be taken whenever the church meets together,” Mary moved from disagree to strongly agree. John Mark had no experience with the Lord’s Supper before Klondike Church. “Before coming to Klondike, I did not take the Lord’s Supper. Once I got baptized, the church I went to, to the best of my memory, did not take the Lord’s Supper.”60 John Mark shifted from neutral to strongly agree on the Likert Survey statement, “The Lord’s Supper should be taken whenever the church meets together.” Luke shared his experience denominationally. “In the Wesleyan Methodist and Nazarene churches, we basically took it quarterly. The bread and grape juice were brought to the pews. Much emphasis was placed on the altar calls and sinners’ prayers. The Lord’s Supper was a ritual.”61 Luke also moved from neutral to strongly agree on the Likert survey statement, “The Lord’s Supper should be taken whenever the Church meets together.” This was an unsettled question for Job before the class began. In the initial interview, Job was asked, “What aspects of the Lord’s Supper are you unsure of?” He answered, “I’ve always kind of wondered about the frequency of it. Should we do it every time we meet? Is it once a month we take it?”62 On the Likert survey statement, “The Lord’s Supper should be taken whenever the church meets together,” Job moved from neutral to strongly agree. 59 “Mary,” phone interview by author, March 29, 2024. 60 “John Mark,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 61 “Luke,” phone interview by author, March 27, 2024. 62 “Job,” phone interview by author, March 30, 2024. 184 By the second focus group, the participants’ views seemed confirmed in the belief that the Lord’s Supper should be taken weekly. When the researcher probed the group concerning whether the Lord’s Supper should be given when the church meets together, Phoebe immediately quoted Jesus’ words, “‘Where two or three gather in my name,’ we should take the Lord’s Supper.”63 Jael added, “But the leaders of the church need to be there.”64 Joseph continued, “Whenever there is a service, not a Bible study.”65 Mary added, “I don’t think of Wednesday nights at a church service. We could be eating a hamburger on Wednesday night while doing our study. If it was our Sunday night service, we could take the Lord Supper.”66 Table 4.9. provides a visual representation of the overwhelming movement toward weekly participation in the Lord’s Supper in the local church. 63 “Phoebe,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 64 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 65 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 66 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 185 Unity in the Church Body In the sixth session, 1 Corinthians 11 and Justin Martyr’s description of a church service in chapter 67 of First Apology were used to show how correct participation in the Lord’s Supper should lead to unity in the local church body. For many of the participants, this was a new concept, with noted changes in the Likert survey scores in all twelve participants. Most moved from a posture of neutrality or disagreement to agreement on the Likert survey surrounding these issues. In the final focus group, the participants were asked whether there should be any thoughts of other church members and fellow Christians when taking the Lord’s Supper. Jael shared: “I interpreted this to mean we should always pray for our brothers and sisters. Christ didn’t die just for me, He died for all of us.”67 Mary noted, “If we look up [from prayer] for a minute and see everyone going forward [to take the Lord’s Supper], it can be really encouraging.”68 As noted by Joseph's score on the Likert survey, there was disagreement with using the Lord’s Supper as an opportunity for the church to take up an offering. When asked about this in the final focus group, he noted that it was not the issue of “taking an offering, but taking it at that very moment. I see its importance, just not concurrent with the taking of the bread and cup, but at a later time.”69 This researcher agrees with the sentiment and feels that the statement in the Likert survey, “Taking the Lord’s Supper is an opportunity for the church to give financially to those in need and missing from the worship gathering,” is confusing. The wording should be adjusted for future use to bring more clarity on this point. Table 4.10. is provided as a visual representation of the changes in the participants’ views. 67 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 68 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 69 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 186 187 Ministry Through the Lord’s Supper The final teaching session discussed Justin’s church practice of taking the Lord’s Supper to those missing in worship. This includes ministry to those sick, poor, and separated from the church body due to other trials. Ten participants moved from neutrality to agreement or strengthened their agreement on the statement, “Proper communion observance should lead to outreach to the sick, the poor, and those separated from the church body due to other various trials.” Eight participants moved from neutrality to agreement or strengthened their agreement that “the leadership of a church congregation should distribute the bread and cup to participants present and after the service to those absent.” Only Jael moved on this point from agreement to neutrality. The conversations in the final focus group demonstrated the change of understanding and even desire for transformation on these two points. The participants were asked about their views on the Lord’s Supper as a means of outreach to those missing from worship, recorded in chapter 67 of First Apology. Luke began the conversation. “I found out a practice that my homebound family member engaged in was incorrect. She really wanted to have the sacraments. So, she bought a home kit. She did this so she could celebrate communion by herself. Now I realize why there are biblical or early church reasons why we don’t do that.”70 The participants all assured Luke that her heart was in the right place, and it was a shame there was no church community that could have supported her at this time, as described in Justin Martyr. Luke added, “There are many others we don’t consider. It is an eye-opener.”71 70 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 71 Ibid. 188 Jael shared her conviction that “outreach should be a part of the Christian life. I feel to give back to the community and families of the church that need it. It should be a really big part of a believing Christian.”72 John boldly shared how he hoped Klondike Church would change based on this study and practice found in Justin Martyr’s First Apology. The church doesn’t stop serving when it walks out the door. It continues serving. Going out to these families is our service. The body will grow much stronger if we do these things. We’ve so long been held in a certain ideology and certain style of what we should go that this thought process rattles our cage and comfort zones. Now, we are challenged to move in a direction to move how God is calling us. That is something that we are called to.73 Mary shared how important it would be to make this an official work of the church. Without leadership and structure, it would be impossible to do this ministry as described by Justin. She shared, “I think coordination is the important thing. Here [at Klondike Church], I wouldn’t even know how to find a homebound person. Having the coordination where people can plug in, rather than just trying to figure this out [on their own].”74 Joseph also felt that coordination is important because of a lack of information. He explained, “I don’t know who most of the elderly people are [here at Klondike] because I have only been to church for one year. I haven’t met them. We take Christ’s words of the two greatest commandments seriously. We will go and serve others. By worshiping God, we should transition and serve others.”75 Phoebe shared frustration at how many sick and homebound are neglected today by the church body. “I think people have made excuses and just gotten too busy. When I grew up, there was a group of women who did this: made food and took it to people, visited those who were 72 “Jael,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 73 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 74 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 75 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 189 homebound, do service at the church. We went up and washed the communion service cups.”76 Mary shared that this was a major transformation point for her. “One thing I really flipped on was the importance of bringing the sacraments to those who are out. It is really good to see how early these concepts and traditions are. It gives credence to them. I have only read the church fathers before from a [Roman] Catholic perspective. It was good to see this is really old.”77 Table 3.11. is provided as a visual representation of the changes in the Likert surveys of the participants. 76 “Phoebe,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 77 “Mary,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 190 Summary of Results The results of this intervention seem to have directly addressed the problem that members of Klondike Church lack a comprehensive biblical understanding and practice of the Lord’s Supper. Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Lord’s Supper was purposefully studied in the light of Scripture and brought measurable changes both intellectually and in participation. The Likert Survey scores demonstrated that the participants’ theological understanding of the Lord’s Supper improved. Interviews and focus group conversations confirmed that most participants experienced positive transformation regarding how they partake in the Lord’s Table. Comments from the final focus group demonstrate that these goals were met. Luke shared, “I think it [the small group study] really deepened my experience. The depth of the understanding and the feeling really solidified a lot of things in my mind.”78 John’s mental shift came in the way the Lord’s Supper now appears to him on Sunday. He said, “There is a beauty that I never saw before. The simplicity of this, looking into this, a beauty in remembering Christ crucified. I was reminded again of that.”79 For Joseph, the importance of simplicity when approaching the Lord’s Supper was a shift. He commented, “What was most interesting for me was how the more modern church is over-systematizing things. The early church had a theology everyone could understand.”80 Phoebe found the time in 1 Corinthians 11 to clarify the right formula for participation. “You read about Paul going about establishing all these churches and all their problems. Especially the misuse of the Lord’s Supper. I had not thought about that. Now we know. This 78 “Luke,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 79 “John,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 80 “Joseph,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 191 was the formula that is supposed to be used.”81 She added, “It [The Lord’s Supper] is reflecting on what happened on the Cross. I go through that in my mind. He was torn apart for me. What a wonderful gift. It refreshes my heart.”82 81 “Phoebe,” comment from a focus group participant, May 12, 2024. 82 Ibid. 192 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION This research project began by observing that what a congregation believes about the Lord’s Supper will significantly impact how the members join in this act of worship and its frequency of observation in the local church. The purpose of this study was to examine Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Eucharist in the light of Scripture. This researcher addressed the lack of a comprehensive, historical biblical understanding and practice of communion in the congregation of Klondike Church. The first intent of this study was to examine Justin’s presentation of the Eucharist in chapters 65-67 of First Apology. This included rendering an original translation of these three chapters from the Greek text. The research contrasted the historical description of Justin with precedent literature and Scripture, intending to prepare a curriculum for teaching a small group study. This was completed with five significant themes emerging. The topics included identifying the rightful participants in the Lord’s Supper, the spiritual nourishment found in the communion meal, the regular receiving of the Lord’s Table, the communal nature of the communion meal, and ministry to those absent from worship. The second intent of this project was to implement a small group Bible study with twelve participants. This researcher desired to see a discernible transformation in the participants’ approach to the Lord’s Supper, both intellectually and experientially. When observed rightly, communion is a spiritually life-giving food that builds the community of God’s people.1 Six 1 Daniel Cardó, The Cross and the Eucharist in Early Christianity: A Theological and Liturgical Investigation (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2019), 156. 193 sessions in this small group study included an introduction to the Lord’s Supper and Justin Martyr; a survey of meals with God in Scripture; an examination of who the rightful participants in communion are; how to remember Jesus in the bread and the cup; how Jesus is present in the Lord’s Supper; and finally, the communal nature of the communion meal and outreach through the Lord’s Supper. The measurements used in the action research project demonstrated that this goal was achieved, resulting in a more biblically faithful observation of the Lord’s Supper in the participants. Research Implications This research revealed meaningful implications for both the theology and practice of the Lord’s Table. These insights can inform Christians as individual participants and corporately in congregational practice, enhancing their experience in faithful worship. The propositions uncovered are grounded in restoring the Lord’s Supper to its rightful position in the church. Once recovered to a place of prominence in a local congregation, believers can be led to active participation in the ordinance. This includes communion as a sacrament where the believer genuinely encounters God and finds their faith strengthened. The presence of Christ can be emphasized, with the words of institution spoken by the minister being heard by the receiver as if Jesus Himself is speaking directly to them. Consequently, when the participant receives the bread and the cup, they do not merely receive them from a church leader or a serving tray, but as the first disciples did, directly from the Lord Jesus. The significance of the Lord’s Supper to God’s people has been a constant emphasis throughout the history of the church. It is first seen foundationally in the meals and sacrifices of the Old Testament. Communion is prominent in the Synoptic Gospels, with all three recording this sacrament before the crucifixion. The emphasis on bread and water throughout John’s 194 Gospel, along with the miracle of feeding the five thousand and Jesus’ sermon in John 6, complement the historical record of the Synoptics. Paul’s correction and teaching of the Corinthian church demonstrate the value of this ordinance for a local congregation (1 Cor 11:17-34). The final stress of the Lamb’s Supper and the tree of life in the eschaton (Rev 19:7-9; 22:1-2, 17) point to how vital the gift of the Lord’s Supper is to God’s people. Rather than being feared, devalued, or ignored, the Lord’s Table should hold great distinction in the worship of God and the hearts of His followers. Baptist theologian Russell Moore charges, “Churches must consciously reclaim the Lord’s Supper as a central aspect of the church’s identity in Christ.”2 Justin Martyr’s chapters 65-67 of First Apology reveal just how fundamental the communion meal was to the identity of the church in his day. Contemporary Christians should cultivate a theological understanding that celebrates and cherishes rightful participation at the Lord’s Table, allowing it to hold a crucial place in Sunday worship again. This research has demonstrated that for communion to have its rightful place at Klondike Church, there must be conscious, focused teaching and experiential, active participation. Church members cannot be expected to understand the depths of the Lord’s Supper without intentional instruction. Justin Martyr gave a purposeful explanation of this sacrament of the church to nonbelievers in his era. This is even more critical for Christians who regularly seek to join in this act of worship. Justin’s example follows the apostle Paul, who rectified the abuses of the Lord’s Supper with careful correction of the Corinthian congregation. Every generation of the church should be educated in this ordinance for proper involvement. 2 Russell D. Moore, “Baptist View: Christ’s Presence as Memorial” in Understanding Four Views on the Lord’s Supper, ed. John H. Armstrong (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 29. 195 There can be a propensity to drift into a lethargic, spiritually motionless receiving of the Lord’s Table. This temptation to spiritual coasting is true for all worship service elements. It is vital to the discipleship of the church to teach all that Jesus commanded the church (Matt 28:20), including what communion is and how to remember Jesus in the Lord’s Supper. A passive participation in the Lord’s Supper, which neglects the work of self-examination and remembering Christ’s presence, body, and blood, is a defective participation. Different theological camps have often used chapters 65-67 of First Apology to argue for the mode of Jesus’ presence in the sacrament. Research revealed that instead of later beliefs and theories that developed regarding Jesus’ presence, the emphasis of Justin and the Apostolic Fathers before him was very simple, evangelical, and practical. No detailed explanation is given concerning the mode of Jesus’ body and blood being present in the communion observance. What is apparent in the writings of Justin Martyr and many church fathers is that there is an actual encounter with God in Jesus Christ through the regular elements of bread and wine.3 All later models that developed concerning the presence of Christ in the bread and wine can use Justin’s text and the corpus of the church fathers to support their view.4 In the observation of this researcher, theologians and ministers too frequently use the Lord’s Supper observance as an opportunity to argue their theological views on the table. Instead, in the simplicity of faith, the communion service should strengthen the faith of weary Christians by remembering Jesus’ work on the Cross and His presence in the present service. As 3 Christopher A. Hall, Learning Theology With the Church Fathers (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 131. 4 Michael Horton, The Christian Faith: A Systematic Theology for Pilgrims on the Way (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 803. 196 John Armstrong summarized, “The most important point is to commune as he [Jesus] taught us, not simply to debate the meaning of communion.”5 A simple emphasis on the presence of Christ can change the entire tone and reception of the bread and cup. This includes reminding the congregation of Jesus’ presence at the meal, how they should hear the words of institution as if Jesus is speaking directly to them, and how they should receive the meal from His hand. Since the biblical name of this ordinance is the Lord’s Supper, stress should be placed on Jesus as the head of the meal. This ordinance does not originate in the apostles or the church, but in the Lord of the church. Jesus is the one who spiritually feeds His people through this sacrament. Seventeenth-century Puritan Thomas Watson highlighted this critical point when he wrote, “Christ being the founder of the sacrament gives glory and a luster to it. A king making a feast adds all the more state and magnificence to it.”6 Puritan writer Thomas Wadsworth continues, “It is a pleasant thing to feast, but it is honorable to feast with a king, most honorable with the King of kings and Lord of the whole earth.”7 The emphasis on the table as the Lord’s Supper, with God providing the elements and Jesus making the invitation to come, should bring hope to the heart of a believer.8 An effective reception of the bread and cup is not found in the elements themselves but in Christ, who is present and received by faith in His followers. His presence secures the benefits of the table, as the Holy Spirit strengthens the faith of the children of God. 5 John H. Armstrong, Understanding Four Views on the Lord’s Supper, ed. John H. Armstrong (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 155. 6 Thomas Watson, The Lord’s Supper (1665, repr., The Holy Eucharist, Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2015), 3. 7 Thomas Wadsworth, “It Is Every Christian’s Indispensable Duty to Partake of the Lord’s Supper” in The Puritans on the Lord’s Supper, ed. Don Kistler (Grand Rapids, MI: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1997), 72. 8 Ibid. 197 Once it has been accentuated that Jesus is present in the partaking of the communion meal, the congregation can hear the reading of the words of institution (1 Cor 11:24-25) as if Jesus, not the minister, is speaking to them. Jesus is present, and these are His words for His church. Paul corrected the wrongful observation of the Corinthian meal by reminding the church of what Jesus said to His followers when He gave the meal. Justin Martyr also emphasized these words as Jesus’ words in First Apology 66.3. Since Jesus is present in the Lord’s Supper observance, an awareness of His overseeing the meal can impact how the bread and cup are physically received. When participants stretch out their hand to receive the elements, they should accept them as if Jesus hands them to the Christian. Ultimately, it is not a deacon, elder, or minister who passes a tray or hands them the bread and cup, but Jesus Himself. This is emphasized by Justin Martyr when he writes that in the Eucharist, Jesus shared the bread and cup only with the disciples (66:3). In the same way, Paul considered his Lord’s Table as “received from the Lord” (1 Cor 11:23), not man. David Scaer summarizes the importance of acknowledging Jesus’ presence in worship, including communion: “The Lord’s people come together on the Lord’s Day to hear the Lord’s word (i.e., the gospel), to pray the Lord’s Prayer, and to gather around the Lord’s table to receive the Lord’s Supper. In all these actions and in the elements themselves, Jesus is present. This meal is in every aspect the Lord’s Supper.”9 Research Applications This researcher desires to see the leadership and membership of churches apply the findings of this research in the local context. If the leadership of a congregation began 9 David Scaer, “Lutheran View: Finding the Right Word” in Understanding Four Views on the Lord’s Supper, ed. John H. Armstrong (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2007), 98. 198 implementing the theology and practice of the Eucharist as described by Justin Martyr in their congregation, a more biblically faithful observation of the Lord’s Supper would follow. The significant applications of this study include implementing a weekly celebration of the Lord’s Supper; restoring the name Eucharist as a central designation for communion; utilizing the Lord’s Table as a time to refocus the hearts of the congregation around the gospel; verbal fencing of the communion meal; having the Lord’s Supper follow the sermon; and intentionally teaching on communion, a type of catechesis for all new believers and members. A Weekly Lord’s Supper Celebration The first application of this research is implementing a weekly practice of the Lord’s Supper during worship. A Lifeway Research survey found that 57 percent of Southern Baptist Convention churches celebrate the Lord’s Supper quarterly, 18 percent monthly, and 15 percent 5 to 10 times yearly.10 The hosts of the Podcast Revitalize and Replant of the North American Mission Board confirmed these statistics, noting that most Southern Baptist churches take the Lord’s Supper once a quarter in older demographic churches and once a month in younger congregations.11 In contrast, Justin Martyr’s description of a normative worship service in chapter 67 of First Apology included the weekly observance of the Lord’s Table. In the early church, salvation was understood experientially, with the Lord’s Supper as part of the continuous participation in 10 Lifeway Research, “Lifeway Surveys Lord’s Supper Practices of SBC Churches,” last modified September 17, 2012, https://research.lifeway.com/2012/09/17/lifeway-surveys-lords-supper-practices-of-sbc-churches. 11 Mark Clifton, Mark Hallock, and Dan Hurst, “Trends In Baptism and the Lord’s Supper,” (podcast), Revitalize & Replant podcast with Mark Clifton, June 11, 2024, 10:30, https://www.namb.net/podcasts/revitalizeandreplant/trends-in-baptism-and-the-lords-supper. 199 and remembrance of Christ’s work.12 Continuous participation and remembrance of the gospel message are vital to spiritual strength, and the Lord’s Supper is a crucial avenue God has given His people for stability. When observed weekly in a congregation, with Jesus at the center of the meal, the Lord’s Supper becomes a sacred rhythm that keeps the spirits of God’s people awake.13 This researcher has observed that many churches confine their remembrance of the Cross to Good Friday and Holy Week. A weekly Lord’s Supper observance will center congregations on Christ and His salvific work regardless of what text of Scripture is preached by the minister and what part of the church calendar is being observed. Whether in a liturgical church during Advent or Trinity Sunday or a free church that thematically celebrates Father’s Day and Vacation Bible School, there will always be a gospel proclamation and remembrance of Jesus’ work. Moore suggests that many of the Baptist churches that only celebrate communion quarterly try to fill their need for the Lord’s Table with a Sunday meal, coffee, and doughnuts before Sunday School or lunch after service at a local restaurant.14 In other congregations, many have swapped the altar call, a gospel invitation, worship music sets, or announcements in place of the Lord’s Table. None of these are sufficient substitutes for this ordinance Jesus has gifted His church. The Lord’s Supper, celebrated weekly, helps the church remember the reality that the Cross was done for man, not by man.15 It has just as much importance as other weekly elements of a church gathering. The Lord’s Supper should not be valued less than a call to 12 Coleman M. Ford, “Salvation” in Historical Theology for the Church, eds. Jason G. Duesing and Nathan A. Finn (Nashville, TN: B & H Academic, 2021), 97. 13 Scot McKnight, The Jesus Creed: Loving God, Loving Others (Brewster, MA: Paraclete Press, 2004), 267. 14 Moore, “Baptist View,” 41. 15 Zachary M. Bowden, “The Church” in Historical Theology for the Church, eds. Jason G. Duesing and Nathan A. Finn (Nashville, TN: B & H Academic, 2021), 136. 200 worship, confession of sin, prayer, Scripture reading, preaching, or an offering, and especially not to a lesser extent than announcements or a time of welcome and fellowship. A Re-emergence of Eucharist The second application to this research is for church leaders to again emphasize the name Eucharist as a designation of the Lord’s Supper in their teaching, preaching, and introductions to the ordinance. In chapters 65-67 of First Apology, Justin utilized this nominal form four times to describe the sacrament and the verbal form three times to designate what happens during communion. This verbal form is used in the Synoptic Gospels and by the apostle Paul in 1 Corinthians 11 to refer to Jesus giving thanks for the elements. Whether the Greek term Eucharist is used or an English equivalent, church leaders should not shy away from its prominence. N.T. Wright suggests an English equivalent would be “the thank-you meal.”16 Puritan writer Edmund Calamy describes a proper Eucharistic observance as one with a “holy exultation of soul” combined with “cheerfulness and joy that are the natural indications of a thankful heart.”17 Moore notes that often in Baptist churches, the “Lord’s Supper services are characterized by a funereal [sic] atmosphere, complete with somber, droning organ music as the ministers or deacons distribute the elements to the congregation.”18 A re-emergence of the name Eucharist can lead the hearts of worshipers to have a posture of joy and thankfulness for God’s provision in Christ at communion. Puritan Edmund Calamy warns against coming to the communion table “as a piece of slavery or drudgery, but [instead] as 16 N.T. Wright, The Meal Jesus Gave: Understanding Holy Communion, Revised Edition (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2015), 40. 17 Edmund Calamy, “The Express Renewal of Our Christian Vows” in The Puritans on the Lord’s Supper, ed. Don Kistler (Grand Rapids, MI: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1997), 52. 18 Moore, “Baptist View,” 33. 201 our greatest happiness.”19 There should be a spirit of gratitude in observing the Lord’s Supper as worshipers thank God for forgiving their sins. Taking the bread should make them appreciate the incarnation of Christ and His body broken at the Cross, and the cup should bring joy for His blood that was shed as an atoning sacrifice for sin. Rather than the mood of a funeral observance, this section of the worship service should lead to joy, singing, and thanksgiving to God, who is the rock of our salvation (Psalm 95:1-2).20 The congregation should be taught to understand the Lord’s Supper as “announcing the triumph of Christ over the powers of sin, death, and Satan” and should be accompanied by “celebrative singing.”21 While there is sobriety and even tears of repentance at the Lord’s Supper as one considers their past sins, there should also be great thanksgiving, a Eucharist of joy as one remembers the blood of Jesus washes away the sins of His people.22 At Klondike Church, using Eucharist as a synonymous name for the Lord’s Supper will be recovered by intentionality. When introducing new attendees to the doctrine of the church through seminars, Eucharist needs to be explained biblically and historically. During worship services, the term will be used both to introduce the Lord’s Supper and to prepare hearts during the call to the congregation by a minister before they come forward to receive the bread and cup. 19 Calamy, “The Express Renewal of Our Christian Vows,” 52. 20 “Oh come, let us sing for joy to Yahweh, Let us make a loud shout to the rock of our salvation. Let us come before His presence with thanksgiving, Let us make a loud shout to Him with songs of praise” (Ps 95:1-2, LSB). 21 Moore, “Baptist View,” 33. 22 This idea is taken from Puritan Thomas Watson, who wrote, “We remember our sins with grief, yet we should remember Christ’s sufferings with joy. Let us weep for those sins which shed his blood, yet rejoice in that blood which washes away our sins.” Watson, The Lord’s Supper, 67. 202 Refocus Hearts on the Gospel at the Lord’s Table The third application to this research is for church leaders to utilize the Lord’s Table as a time to refocus the hearts of the congregation around the gospel. Justin Martyr’s observation of the Lord’s Supper required participants to believe the gospel (66.1) and was grounded in the gospel message, as recorded in 66.2 of First Apology. Justin declared, “Jesus Christ our Savior through the word of God was made incarnate and took upon him flesh and blood for our deliverance.”23 Every Lord’s Supper observance is an opportunity for the church leadership to remind the congregation of the gospel, refocusing the hearts of the church on the work of Christ. Jesus called His followers to take the Lord’s Supper in remembrance of Him. It is a command of Jesus to remember His saving work in this ordinance. Like the feasts of Israel, the Lord’s Supper is a gift of God to His church to prevent spiritual dementia and awaken the memory of God’s people to who they are.24 Richard Phillips remarks that ministers giving the Lord’s Supper to their congregation can “rehearse the events of that night on which our Lord instituted the supper and was later arrested. . . . [They] should speak of the dismay with which the disciples heard of the cross, but the words of comfort Jesus gave.”25 The Revitalize and Replant podcast described how far many contemporary churches have departed from this type of remembrance. The hosts noted that “in most cases, [the Lord’s Supper] is a tack on”26 in the service. Clifton, Hallock, and Hurst observe that “in most evangelicalism today . . . it’s like, ‘Hey, listen, we just have communion available 23 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 66.2. 24 McKnight, The Jesus Creed, 265-266. 25 Richard D. Phillips, “The Lord’s Supper: An Overview” in Give Praise to God: A Vision for Reforming the Church, Celebrating the Legacy of James Montgomery Boice, eds. Philip Graham Ryken, Derek W. H. Thomas, and J. Ligon Duncan III (Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 2003), 213. 26 Clifton, Hallock, and Hurst, “Trends in Baptism and the Lord’s Supper,” (podcast), 10:50. 203 for anybody. Grab it on the way out.”27 Without a focus on the gospel message, the Lord’s Supper is nothing more than common bread and an ordinary drink, whereas, in Justin’s Eucharistic observance, it is not ordinary (66.2). The Lord’s Supper should be a tangible, physical reminder that the Lord protects those who drink from the Firstborn’s cup, just like he protected Israelites with blood-smeared doors in the first Exodus.28 The shedding of blood and its application has already been accomplished in the life of the Christian, and its work is proclaimed, remembered, and celebrated with thankfulness. Ministers presiding over the communion observance should take time to verbally refocus the hearts of the congregation around the gospel, confirming their faith. Richard Phillips describes how ministers can connect the Lord’s Table to all redemptive history with a gospel focus. Christians gather before the Lord’s Table like Israel in the desert seeking provision. We are pilgrims on our sojourn to Canaan, and here is the spiritual manna through which we gain strength for the long journey yet ahead. Here is the drink for the parched lips of our souls, brought forth not by the striking of the rock but by the striking of Christ upon the cross. Like Abraham coming to Melchizedek from the weariness of his battles, we come to God through Christ to be fed, provisioned, refreshed, and renewed.29 Another way church leadership can help focus the celebration of the Eucharist on the gospel is by a visible breaking of the bread. At Klondike Church, this will be done each week by the minister presiding over communion during worship. A minister taking the bread and breaking it into pieces in front of the church congregation can help the people visibly see and remember Jesus’ body. N.T. Wright states, “This is the symbol Jesus himself gave us as his way for us to be enfolded within the meaning of his own death. He didn’t give us a theory, he gave us an action, 27 Clifton, Hallock, and Hurst, “Trends in Baptism and the Lord’s Supper,” (podcast), 3:35. 28 McKnight, The Jesus Creed, 269. 29 Phillips, “The Lord’s Supper,” 214. 204 and this is it.”30 When the bread is broken, the words of Jesus can be read to the congregation, reminding them of His presence and sacrifice. Adam died in the Garden of Eden by eating the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil, but believers live by eating the bread and drinking the cup, coming to Christ in faith (John 6:35).31 A Verbal Fencing of the Lord’s Table The fourth application of this research is for church leaders to fence the communion table verbally. In the Lifeway Research survey, fifty two percent of Southern Baptist pastors open the Lord’s Supper to “anyone who has put their faith in Jesus Christ.”32 Only thirty five percent require baptism as a believer, consistent with the Baptist Faith and Message 2000.33 Shockingly, the survey revealed that five percent open communion to anyone who wants to participate, and four percent stated their church does not specify who can or cannot partake of the ordinance.34 In 66.1 of First Apology, Justin Martyr recorded three requirements for being admitted to the Lord’s Supper. These included the partaker being a believer in Christian teachings, being baptized in water, and living as Christ instructed. These requirements needed to be met, or one would not be permitted to participate (66.1). Justin recorded that Jesus only gave the sacrament to His disciples (66.3). While Jesus preached the gospel to the multitudes, it was only with His followers that this meal was given. After ministers have shared the gospel at the Eucharist, they must communicate to those in attendance who can and cannot partake of the Lord’s Supper. This 30 Wright, The Meal Jesus Gave, 75. 31 This idea is from Puritan Thomas Watson who wrote, “Here is the bread [that] is broken. Adam died by eating; we live by eating.” Watson, The Lord’s Supper, 49. 32 Lifeway Research, “Lifeway Surveys Lord’s Supper Practices of SBC Churches.” 33 Ibid. See “The Baptist Faith & Message 2000,” VII, Baptist and the Lord’s Supper. It states, “Being a church ordinance, it is prerequisite to the privileges of church membership and to the Lord’s Supper.” 34 Ibid. 205 practice originates from the first meal in the Garden of Eden. As Adam and Eve were cut off from the Tree of Life due to breaking communion with God by sin, so only those who are in communion with God should be welcome to the Lord’s Table. The nature of the command by Jesus to “do this in remembrance of me” implies previous knowledge of the persons and the facts being remembered.35 Faith and baptism are necessities to discipleship (Matt 28:19-20) and faithful Lord’s Supper participation. The presiding minister over the Lord’s Supper should make clear to the congregation that without faith in Christ and obedience in baptism, those in attendance are not welcome to come and eat at the Lord’s Supper.36 Watson writes that “such as come faithless, go away fruitless.”37 This, combined with the gospel proclamation, makes the Lord’s Table a missionary moment, announcing and offering the gospel to the lost.38 It visibly demonstrates those who have been changed by the gospel and are Jesus’ disciples. Paul warned in 1 Corinthians 11 that no one should come to communion who eats and drinks in an unworthy manner (11:27). They should instead test themselves (11:28) and confirm they judge the body of the Lord Jesus rightly (1 Cor 11:29). Those living in open, unrepentant sin or [who] are under the discipline of the church should be warned they cannot come to this 35 James Petigru Boyce, Abstract of Systematic Theology (Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2010), 378, Logos. John Armstrong writes that there must be “real faith” in coming to the Lord’s Supper, and “this meal must not become a work of magic but rather a proclamation of the Lord’s death until he comes.”35 Armstrong, Understanding Four Views on the Lord’s Supper, 158. 36 Each Baptist congregation will need to determine whether they will allow non-immersed but baptized believers to participate and whether those baptized as infants, who meet the other two requirements, can take part in the Lord’s Supper. Those who follow the Baptist Faith and Message 2000 would not be able to admit those baptized as infants to the ordinance. Russell Moore writes concerning admitting those baptized as infants coming to the Lord’s Supper in Baptist churches, “I look forward to the day when the children of Nashville and the children of Geneva (along with all the children of God from every tribe, tongue, and “communion”) can fellowship around a supper in the new earth. Then, though perhaps not until then, we will be united around the table.” Moore, “Bapitst View,” 37. 37 Watson, The Lord’s Supper, 51 38 McKnight, The Jesus Creed, 273. 206 table. Instead, they should first repent and resolve to fight the sin and turn to Christ in faith before they would be welcome. Those under the discipline of the church should seek their leaders in repentance to Christ and begin the steps necessary to be again found worthy receivers of communion. At Klondike Church, the minister presiding over the Lord’s Supper must intentionally and regularly explain who is welcome to take it before it is distributed. The minister must also warn those who are not the right recipients of communion to stay in their seats during this part of the worship service. Instead of coming forward to receive the bread and cup, they can use the time to pray, be reconciled to God through Christ, commit to repentance for sin, or follow the Lord Jesus in baptism if they have not yet submitted to that ordinance. The Lord’s Supper is to bring unity to the body of Christ. Those who “have unreconciled hostility with another member of the congregation are to refrain from the supper,”39 making this table a means of promoting the church as a reconciled family. Jesus applied this standard to the sacrificial system of old (Matt 5:23-24), and it should continue in the sacrament of communion. Ministers should warn those in sin with a spirit of division amongst the church membership to seek reconciliation before coming to the Lord’s Supper. Order Communion Observance Following the Sermon The fifth application of this research is for church leaders to place the Lord’s Supper in the service order following the sermon. This researcher has observed that many congregations celebrate communion at the beginning of the service, after some congregational singing. Other congregations mention the ordinance as something to take when the attendees exit the sanctuary. 39 Phillips, “The Lord’s Supper,” 215. 207 However, this makes the church ordinance “an afterthought, tagged on to the end of a service, perhaps after the final musical number.”40 In contrast, Justin’s historical description of a worship service in 67.4-5 of First Apology records a sermon by the leader and then prayer, followed immediately by the Lord’s Table. This practice gives communion a pivotal place in the service, embodying a renewal of the new covenant (Luke 22:20) after God has spoken through the preached word. Food and meals function throughout most biblical covenants as a sign and seal of God’s word.41 The Lord’s Supper is a proper way to respond to what has been proclaimed through the sermon in the worship service. Placing the Lord’s Supper after the sermon can help the minister lead the messages back to the central truths of the gospel each week. Instead of “how to” sermons devoid of the gospel, messages will naturally move to the finished work of Jesus on the Cross. N.T. Wright experientially applies this worship service order when he declares, “Scripture is expounded so that the heart is warmed; food is served so that the Lord may be known. You can sit anonymously in church and hear Scripture, and a sermon, but you have to receive and eat the bread yourself.”42 Souls are often heavy after the preaching of God’s Word, and the broken body of Christ in the Lord’s Table becomes a comfort for broken hearts.43 Ministers preach sermons to grow the church in the grace and knowledge of Christ, and the Lord’s Table is an appropriate way to minister to the souls of the congregation after the message. Calvin wrote that the 40 Moore, “The Baptist View,” 37. 41 Jeffrey Meyers, The Lord’s Service: The Grace of Covenant Renewal Worship (Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2003), 42. 42 Wright, The Meal Jesus Gave, 69. 43 Watson, The Lord’s Supper, vii. 208 sacrament is “ordained not for the perfect, but for the weak and feeble, to awaken, arouse, stimulate, and exercise the feeling of faith and love, indeed, to correct the defect of both.”44 Intentional Teaching on the Lord’s Supper as Discipleship The sixth application of this research is for church leaders to intentionally teach the importance of the Lord’s Supper to all new believers and members as a means of discipleship. It should not be assumed that new Christians and new members of church congregations will understand what the Lord’s Supper is and how to participate rightly. Justin Martyr described the Lord’s Supper to nonbelievers in chapter 66 of First Apology. The apostle Paul explained the correct meaning and practice of the Lord’s Supper to the Corinthian church in 1 Corinthians 11. Every minister is responsible for teaching this church ordinance to sanctify the believers and for their rightful participation in worship. This can be accomplished as a type of catechesis through new member classes, small group Bible studies, and sermon series. Since only twelve people participated in this ministry project, Klondike Church needs to incorporate this application broadly into church life. This will manifest itself in four distinct efforts. First, current church leaders who were not present in the class are encouraged to watch the recorded small group sessions from the project and encounter the content of the class. Second, an abbreviated version of the small group teachings developed will be added as one distinct session in the new member seminars. This will help those new to the Christian faith or the church community smoothly assimilate into the congregation and participate faithfully in worship at the Lord’s Table. Third, this class will be offered regularly in the discipleship opportunities for small groups at Klondike Church. The six weeks of sessions will be repeated 44 John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, ed. John T. McNeill, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, vol. 1, The Library of Christian Classics (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011), 1420, Logos. 209 yearly and offered to a larger segment of the church population. Fourth, the ministers who introduce the Lord’s Supper each week will intentionally emphasize elements of the class in their charges. This will lead to a consistent rhythm of instruction with the entire church body on how to faithfully participate in the ordinance. Research Limitations Various limitations to the project are evident after its completion and the evaluation of the results. The first limitation was the time the small group classes were conducted. Since Wednesday is typically a workday for most potential participants, some who desired to participate could not. Had the class been conducted on the weekend, this may have broadened the makeup of those in the project. A Sunday meeting time before the worship service may have strengthened the applications of the classes for the participants. To directly take part in worship and the Lord’s Supper after receiving teaching on this topic may have made it easier to mentally recall and utilize the applications the participants received in the sessions. The second limitation was the lack of new Christians among the participants. The researcher had twelve participants who were diverse in age and gender. However, no participants were new Christians baptized within the last year. It would have been insightful to see their growth in the class and what wrong beliefs were corrected had some of the twelve been new believers. To be able to interview and then measure new Christians would have provided understanding as to how the teaching sessions impacted their participation and would have brought greater discernment concerning the effectiveness of the class. The third limitation was that no minors were allowed to participate in the intervention. This decision was made to avoid possible challenges to receiving IRB approval. Since children 210 who are baptized believers take part in the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church, their participation in the study could have clarified its efficacy. The fourth limitation was that the participant body lacked most church leadership. The absence of an elder in the participant roster and the presence of only one deacon limits the ability of the church to execute changes in practice. For adjustments to be implemented in the practice of a congregation, having all leadership participate in the study would be ideal. This is especially true of the church elders who lead the charge to the Lord’s Table each week. Further Research Further research is merited on biblically faithful participation in the Lord’s Supper, following the model of Justin Martyr. The research of this project can be utilized as a starting point and then expanded on, leading to more scriptural fidelity in worship and transformative renewal in partaking of the Eucharist. This researcher has identified four additional opportunities for future research. First, other projects could be developed that focus on a more specific audience. Two possibilities are at the forefront of this researcher’s mind, including a project geared toward new Christians and a project geared toward children. While this researcher sought to lead the small group sessions without assuming the audience was familiar with the fundamentals of communion, a group made up of either new believers or children, respectively, could have greater efficacy in transformation. This future endeavor could still utilize aspects of this project, but restricting its scope to these audiences will clarify the content and teaching style. This audience would lead the conversations and question and answer sessions to naturally correct what may have been assumed or missed in the teaching. 211 Second, another project on the Lord’s Supper could be developed as part of a new member’s class for a local church. This researcher has observed that many congregations have classes specifically for new attendees on topics like the ordinance of baptism, giving, and spiritual gifts and service. A class developed for new members to understand the theology and practice of their church on communion could be beneficial for assimilation and faithful partaking. Third, future research could be conducted on Justin Martyr and his description of deacons taking the Eucharist to those who were not present in the worship gathering. This practice could minister to homebound members, hospitalized church members, and those with other challenging circumstances separating them from the church body. A project could be developed that focused on developing and implementing a ministry plan to reach these individuals with the Lord’s Supper and keep them from being forgotten by the church family. Fourth, future research could be conducted on Justin Martyr and his description of the offerings taken for the needy, including orphans, widows, the sick, those imprisoned, and refugees temporarily residing in a community.45 This offering is recorded as being taken immediately following the congregation partaking of the Eucharist. An investigation could be conducted to determine how this was practiced in the primitive church, compare them to the teachings of Scripture, and then apply what was learned in a ministry project when the Lord’s Table is celebrated. In conclusion, this researcher can affirm that the small group study on Justin Martyr’s historical practice of the Lord’s Supper in the light of Scripture led to a more biblically faithful participation. The six-session small group study impacted the participants both intellectually in 45 Justin Martyr, Apologia i 67.6. 212 their theology and experientially in their practice. Based on the data gathered from the project implementation, the project succeeded in both categories. As discussed in the sixth application point, Klondike Church now has a plan in place to disciple the present congregation as well as future converts with a biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper. The church that thoughtfully examines and implements the themes Justin describes will transform their weekly worship, encountering the presence of Christ by faith when partaking in the bread and cup. Participants may come to the Lord’s Table in weakness and weariness but leave in the strength and joy of the Lord. With faithful participation, as expressed by Justin Martyr, their doubts and forgetfulness will be removed as they remember God’s love for them afresh through Jesus’ work on the Cross and the body of Christ they are called to love and serve. 213 APPENDIX A PERMISSION REQUEST LETTER January 27, 2024 Klondike Church Leadership To: Rev. Frank Butler, Elder; Deacons Daniel Cooke; Luke Hassell; Joshua Reesman; and Clarence West 7201 Klondike Road Pensacola, Florida, 32526 Dear Klondike Leadership: As a doctoral candidate in the John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University, I am conducting research as part of the requirements for a Doctor of Ministry degree in Theology and Apologetics. The title of my research project is “A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr,” and the purpose of my research is to implement a six-week study on Justin Martyr’s historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church, seeking to strengthen the participation of those who take part in this project. Request For Permission I am writing to request your permission to conduct my research at Klondike Church, contacting members and regular attendees to recruit participants for my research. Participant Expectations Participants will be asked to participate in a six-week study from 6:30-7:30 pm on Wednesday nights in Klondike Church’s Reformation Hall. Participants will be surveyed, interviewed, and asked to join a focus group. Participants will be presented with informed consent information prior to participating. Participating in this study is completely voluntary, and participants are welcome to discontinue participation at any time. Thank you for considering my request. For educational research, church permission should be on an approved letterhead with the appropriate signature (s). A permission letter document is attached for your convenience to use as a template. If you grant permission, please provide a signed statement on an official letterhead indicating your approval. Sincerely, Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer Pastor, Klondike Church Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University 214 [Please provide this document on the official letterhead of the church. Permission response should be returned the researcher, Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer, either via email or hard copy. Please copy and paste text into the letter, completing as needed.] [Date] Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University 6776 Chicago Avenue Pensacola, FL 32526 Dear Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer: After a careful review of your research proposal entitled “A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr,” we have decided to grant you permission to access our membership list and invite them to participate in your study and conduct your study at Klondike Church. Check the following boxes, as applicable: We will provide our membership list to Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer, and Rev. Wallnofer may use the list to contact our members to invite them to participate in his research study. We grant permission for Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer to contact members and regular attendees to invite them to participate in his research study.] The requested data WILL NOT BE STRIPPED of identifying information before it is provided to the researcher. Sincerely, [Official’s Name] [Official’s Title] Klondike Church 215 APPENDIX B ONLINE ADVERTISEMENT ATTENTION MEMBERS AND REGULAR ATTENDERS OF KLONDIKE CHURCH: I am conducting research as part of the requirements for a Doctor of Ministry Degree in Theology and Apologetics at Liberty University. My research aims to implement a six-week study on the Lord’s Supper, an integral part of the worship of Klondike Church and all Christian congregations. The eminent church father Justin Martyr gives the earliest second-century description of how a typical church service was ordered and details the theology and practice of communion in his book, First Apology. As Justin Martyr was only a few generations removed from the giving of the New Testament, his description of the practice of the Lord’s Supper in the early church is important to understand as it aligns with the Bible. This class will study what the Bible teaches about communion and how it has been practiced historically. This class seeks to impact the rest of the participant’s Christian life as they are now informed and transformed in their coming to communion in worship. To participate, you must be 18 years of age or older, a Christian, and baptized. Participants will be asked to complete a brief survey at the beginning and end of the six weeks. They will be asked to attend all sessions of the six-week Bible study class from 6:30-7:30 pm on Wednesday nights, and to participate in an interview, and to possibly participate in a focus group. If you would like to participate and meet the study criteria, direct message me/contact me at for more information. A consent document will be given/emailed to you upon acceptance in the research project. 216 APPENDIX C RECRUITMENT FLYER Title of the Project: “A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr” Researcher: Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer, Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University Are you 18 years of age or older? Are you a Christian? Have you been baptized as a believer? Are you a member or regular attendee of Klondike Church? If you answered yes to each of the questions listed above, you may be eligible to participate in a research study. This research aims to implement a six-week study on the Lord’s Supper, an integral part of the worship of Klondike Church and all Christian congregations. The eminent church father Justin Martyr gives the earliest second-century description of how a typical church service was ordered and details the theology and practice of communion in his book, First Apology. As Justin Martyr was only a few generations removed from the giving of the New Testament, his description of the practice of the Lord’s Supper in the early church is important to understand as it aligns with the Bible. This class will study what the Bible teaches about communion and how it has been practiced historically. This class seeks to impact the rest of the participant’s Christian life as they are now informed and transformed in their coming to communion in worship. Participants will be asked to sign a consent form to participate in this study. They will complete a brief survey at the beginning and end of the six weeks. They will be asked to attend all sessions of the six-week Bible study class from 6:30-7:30 pm each Wednesday night, and some participants will be asked to take part in an interview or a focus group. Invitation To Join The Research Study Research Study Description Study Procedures RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS NEEDED 217 If you would like to participate, please contact Pastor Joshua Wallnofer A consent document will be given to you once you are accepted into the research study by Pastor Wallnofer. Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer, a doctoral student in the John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University, is conducting this study. Liberty University IRB 1971 University Blvd., Green Hall 2845, Lynchburg, VA 24515 If You Are Interested… Consent Form 218 APPENDIX D EMAIL INVITATION Dear Potential Participant: As a doctoral student in the John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University, I am conducting research as part of the requirements for a Doctor of Ministry degree in Theology and Apologetics. My research aims to implement a six-week study on Justin Martyr’s historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper at Klondike Church, seeking to strengthen the participation of those who participate in this project. I am emailing to invite you to join my study. Participants must meet three requirements: They must be 18 years of age or older, a Christian, and baptized. Participants will be asked to complete a brief survey at the beginning and end of the six weeks. They will be asked to attend all sessions of the six-week Bible study class from 6:30-7:30 pm each Wednesday night, and some participants will be asked to participate in an interview or a focus group. Participants will be presented with informed consent information prior to participating. The class will be video recorded, and participation in an interview or focus group will be audio recorded. Taking part in this study is completely voluntary, and participants are welcome to discontinue participation at any time. It should take approximately six and a half hours to complete the class and survey over six weeks, and if selected for an interview or focus group an extra hour respectively. Names and other identifying information will be requested as part of this study, but participant identities will not be disclosed. To participate, please contact Rev. Joshua Wallnofer . A consent document will be given to you if you meet the study criteria. The consent document contains additional information about my research. If you choose to participate, you will need to sign the consent document and return it to me before the first class begins at Klondike Church. Sincerely, Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University 219 APPENDIX E CONSENT FORM OF PARTICIPANTS Consent Form Title of the Project: “A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr” Researcher: Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer, Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University You are invited to participate in a research study. To participate, you must meet four requirements. Participants must be 18 years of age or older, a Christian, and baptized. They must be a member or regular attendee of Klondike Church. Taking part in this research project is voluntary. Please read this entire form and ask questions before deciding whether to participate in this research. The study aims to implement a six-week class on the Lord’s Supper, an integral part of the worship of Klondike Church and all Christian congregations. This class will study Justin Martyr’s historical biblical practice of the Lord’s Supper, what the Bible teaches about communion, and how it has been practiced historically. This class seeks to impact the rest of the participant’s Christian life as they are now informed and transformed in their coming to communion in worship. If you agree to be in this study, I will ask you to do the following: 1. Take a Survey before the class begins. (Two weeks leading up to the class; the survey will take approximately 10-15 minutes to complete.) 2. Participate in a six-week class each week from 6:30-7:30 pm on Wednesday nights (Six weeks total duration). 3. By the conclusion of the first week of class, you may be requested to take part in an interview with the researcher (Fifteen to thirty minutes). 4. During the fourth week of the research, you might be requested to take part in a focus group with the researcher and other participants (One hour). 5. In the sixth week of class, you will be requested to take a survey (The survey will take approximately ten to fifteen minutes to complete). 6. One week after the class is completed, you might be requested to participate in a focus group with the researcher and other participants (One hour). Invitation to be Part of a Research Study What is the study about and why is it being done? What will happen if you take part in this study? 220 This study's total length of time from the beginning of class to the conclusion of the last focus group will be seven weeks. Participants should expect to receive a six-week study of the Lord’s Supper, an important ordinance of the Christian church. Participants will have the opportunity to study the church father Justin Martyr’s second-century theology of communion and his description of a worship service. This will seek to transform the participants taking of the Lord’s Supper. The expected risks from participating in this study are minimal, which means they are equal to the risks you would encounter in everyday life. The records of this study will be kept private. Research records will be stored securely, and only the researcher will have access to the records. • Participant responses to the surveys will be anonymous. Participant responses within the focus group discussions will be kept confidential by replacing names with pseudonyms. • Interviews will be conducted in a location where others will not easily overhear the conversation or over the telephone. • Confidentiality cannot be guaranteed in focus group settings. While discouraged, other members of the focus group may share what was discussed with persons outside of the group. • Data will be stored on a password-locked computer. After seven years, all electronic records will be deleted. • Recordings will be stored on a password-locked computer until participants have reviewed and confirmed the accuracy of the transcripts and then deleted. The researcher will have access to these recordings. Participation in this study is voluntary. Your decision on whether to participate will not affect your current or future relations with Liberty University or Klondike Church. If you decide to participate, you are free not to answer any question or withdraw at any time prior to submitting the survey. What will happen if you take part in this study? What risks might you experience from being in this study? What risks might you experience from being in this study? Please read the definitions below before completing this section: Is study participation voluntary? 221 If you choose to withdraw from the study, please contact the researcher at the email address/phone number included in the next paragraph. Should you choose to withdraw, data collected from you, apart from focus group data, will be destroyed immediately and will not be included in this study. Focus group data will not be destroyed, but your contributions to the focus group will not be included in the study if you choose to withdraw. The researcher conducting this study is Rev. Joshua M. Wallnofer. You may ask any questions you have now. If you have questions later, you are encouraged to contact him at . You may also contact the researcher’s faculty sponsor, Dr. Bryan Litfin at . If you have any questions or concerns regarding this study and would like to talk to someone other than the researcher[s], you are encouraged to contact the IRB. Our physical address is Institutional Review Board, 1971 University Blvd., Green Hall Ste. 2845, Lynchburg, VA, 24515; our phone number is 434-592-5530, and our email address is irb@liberty.edu. Disclaimer: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is tasked with ensuring that human subjects research will be conducted in an ethical manner as defined and required by federal regulations. The topics covered and viewpoints expressed or alluded to by student and faculty researchers are those of the researchers and do not necessarily reflect the official policies or positions of Liberty University. Before agreeing to be part of the research, please be sure that you understand what the study is about. You will be given a copy of this document for your records. If you have any questions about the study later, you can contact the researcher using the information provided above. I have read and understood the above information. I have asked questions and have received answers. I consent to participate in the study. The researcher has my permission to audio-record/video-record me as part of my participation in this study. ____________________________________ Printed Subject Name ____________________________________ Signature & Date What should you do if you decide to withdraw from the study? Whom do you contact if you have questions or concerns about the study? Your Consent Whom do you contact if you have questions about your rights as a research participant? 222 APPENDIX F STUDENT NOTES Introduction To Justin Martyr And The Lord’s Supper – Session 1 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer I. Getting To Know The Church Father Justin Martyr (His Person and Context) A. Who Was Justin Martyr? (His Person) 1 Peter 3:14-15 Justin’s Conversion: Dialogue with Trypho, 8.1-2 First Apology: Justin’s Martyrdom: B. Justin Martyr’s World (His Context) John 15:18: 1. Incest and Immoral Behavior: 2. Disloyalty to Rome and Atheism: 3. Cannibalism: A Translation of Chapters 65-67 (the First Apology) by Joshua M. Wallnofer II. Various Names for the Lord’s Supper A. The Eucharist. 223 Matthew 26:26-27: Mark 14:22-23: Luke 17:16: Luke 22:17, 19: John 6:11: I Corinthians 11:23-24: Acts 27:35: The Didache (the teaching of the twelve apostles) 9.1-3: B. The Agape Meal Jude 12: Ignatius of Antioch: To The Smyrnaeans, 8.1-2 Why did the Agape Meal fall out of practice? C. The Breaking of Bread: Matthew 26:26: Acts 2:42, 46: Acts 20:7 D. Communion. I Corinthians 10:16-17: E. The Lord’s Supper. I Corinthians 11:20: 224 Revelation 19:9: 1 Corinthians 11:23: Justin Martyr: First Apology, 66.3. F. Lord’s Table. 1 Corinthians 10:21: III. Is the Lord’s Supper an Ordinance or Sacrament? A. Ordinance. B. Sacrament. A Meal with God: Foundations of The Lord’s Supper – Session 2 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer I. Introduction: Not Ordinary Break or Drink (Chapter 66) 66:2: Not as ordinary bread nor an ordinary drink: 1 Corinthians 11:20–22: Ignatius of Antioch, To The Ephesians, 20.2 II. A Meal with God A. The tree of life in Eden (Genesis 2:8-9, 16-17). B. Melchizedek brings bread and wine to Abram (Genesis 14:17-20). 225 C. The Passover meal of a male lamb without blemish and unleavened bread (Exodus 12). D. The Manna and water from the rock that God gave Israel in the wilderness (Exodus 16:14-15; 17:6). E. Moses and the elders of Israel on Sinai who ate and drank with God (Exodus 24:9-11). F. The food offerings of the sacrificial system (Leviticus 21:6, 22). G. The Bread of the Presence in the Tabernacle (Ex 25:30; Lev 24:5-9). H. The Temptation of Christ and Eating Bread (Matthew 4:1-4; Luke 4:1-4). I. Jesus’ Meals in the Gospels (Luke 5:29-32) J. The Lord’s Supper as a Transformed Passover Meal (Luke 22:7-8, 15) K. The Marriage Supper of the Lamb, The Great Supper of Judgment, and The Tree of Life (Revelation 19:7-9; 17-19). III. The Agape Meal (The Love Feast) 2 Peter 2:13: Jude 12: Galatians 2:11–12: Kath Vardi, 'Blessing' of the Heretics. Cairo Geneza, Birkat Haminim: Tertullian, AD 197, Apologeticus. 39.16. 1 Corinthians 11:20–22: IV. The Meal Described by Justin Martyr A. Prayer and Words Attached to the Meal Eucharistized food: 226 Transformation Point: Augustine, In Evangelium Johannis Tractatus 80.3. B. Bread and Wine (the fruit of the Vine) Psalm 104:15: This is a foretaste of the eternal feast (Isaiah 25:6-9). Rightful Participants In The Lord’s Supper – Session 3 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer I. A “Closed” Communion Table (Chapter 66) “…all who have been baptized as professing believers and are members in good standing of their respective churches may be admitted to the Lord’s Supper under the administration of another local church of like faith and order.” -Dallas Vandiver A. A Verbal Fencing. B. A Self Examination. 1 Corinthians 11:26–32: 11:28: Test: Galatians 6:4: 2 Corinthians 13:5: Examine Yourself (1 Corinthians 10-11): 11:27: Guilty: 2 Chronicles 30:18–20: 227 1 Corinthians 10:1-5: Guilty of the body and blood of the Lord: 11:30: For this reason many among you are weak and sick, and a number sleep: Shepherd of Hermas, Vision 3.9. 11:29: Judge the body rightly: II. Justin’s Three Requirements for Participation in the Lord’s Supper A. Believing Participant First Apology, 39.1-5: Dialogue With Trypho, 41.1. I Corinthians 10:21: An Evangelistic Message: Matthew 26:26: Luke 22:19: B. A Baptized Participant (Chapter 65) Acts 2:38: Didache 9.5. Didache 7.1-4. First Apology, 61. 1. Baptist Arguments Against Communing The Non-Immersed (John 3:23 and Acts 2:41-42). 228 2. Baptist Arguments for Communing The Non-Immersed (1 Corinthians 12:13). C. A Faithful Participant First Apology, 16.8. Matthew 7:21-23: First Apology, 14. I Corinthians 11:17-19: Redemptive Purpose of Closing The Table: In Remembrance of Me: How To Remember Jesus – Session 4 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer I. The Foundation For Remembering Christ (66:3) The Apostles, in their remembrances they produced: Matt 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:15-20. Do this is remembrance of me: Luke 22:19–20: 1 Corinthians 11:23–26: What Jesus commanded them: A. Paul’s Record of The Lord’s Supper: The Corinthian Context Transformation Point: 1 Corinthians 11:17–21: 1 Corinthians 11:33: 229 B. Paul’s Record of The Lord’s Supper: The Original Context 11:23: Zechariah 7:5-6: In the night in which he was being betrayed: 1 Corinthians 11:25: Matthew 26:26: Transformation Point: Numbers 22:6: Given thanks: Do this in remembrance of me: We remember Jesus in the bread and the cup. 1 Corinthians 11:24-26: II. The Elements: What We Remember A. We Remember His Body 11:24: This is my body: Dialogue With Trypho, 41.1. Transformation Point: William Bradshaw, Preparing For the Lord’s Supper, 38-39. B. We Remember His Blood 11:25: Poured out for you: Isaiah 53:12: 230 11:24: Which is for you: What do we remember about the blood of Jesus? 1. It is the blood of God (Acts 20:28). 2. His blood is a life-giving, cleansing blood (1 John 1:7; Lev 17:11; Heb 9:14). 3. His blood inaugurates the New Covenant (Jer 31:31-32; Ex 24:8). Dialogue With Trypho, 11.4. III. The Purpose of Paul’s Teaching Didache, 10.5-6: Proclaim: Jesus’ Presence In The Lord’s Supper – Session 5 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer Chapter 66: The Meal Called Eucharist I. The Presence of Christ So . . . this Eucharistized food by the prayer of His word is the blood and flesh of Jesus: A. Roman Catholicism: Transubstantiation: B. The Presence Controversy II. The Memorialist Position. First Apology, 66.3 231 Isaiah 33:13, 16-17: Dialogue With Trypho, 70.2-4 Dialogue With Trypho, 41.1 The “Bare Memorial” Position: III. The Real Presence View. A. The doctrine of omnipresence (Job 34:21-22; Psalm 139:7-10; Prov 15:3; Jer 32:19). B. Jesus is really and truly present spiritually with his people wherever they go, dwelling in their hearts (Matt 28:20; John 14:23; Eph 3:17). C. Jesus’ promise that he is present wherever his believing people meet in his name (Matt 18:20). D. There is a real spiritual presence of Christ promised to believers in special times of trouble and difficulty in their lives (Ps 23:4; Dan 3:25; Acts 18:9-10; 23:11; 2 Tim 4:16-17). Luke 24:30-31: Interacting With Transubstantiation 1 Corinthians 11:23–28: This is: “When our Lord rose again from the dead, He rose with a real human body,—a body which could not be in two places at once,—a body of which the angels said, “He is not here, but is risen.” (Luke 24:6). . . . “if the body with which our blessed Lord ascended up into heaven can be in heaven, and on earth, and on ten thousand communion tables at one and the same time, it cannot be a real human body at all. Yet that He did ascend with a real Human body, although a glorified body, is one of the prime articles of the Christian faith, and one that we ought never to let go!”” J. C. Ryle, Knots Untied: Being Plain Statements on Disputed Points in Religion (London: William Hunt and Company, 1885), 206–207. Luke 22:16–18: 232 Acts 7:56: Leviticus 17:14: Historical Arguments Against Transubstantiation: Thomas Vincent: William Perkins: Henry Pendlebury/Thomas Watson: In Justin’s Second Apology, he discusses the slanders that his contemporary church suffered at the hands of non-Christians. Second Apology, 12.2. Dialogue With Trypho, 10.1-2. Pliny the Younger, Letters 10.96-97: Transformation: Docetism: 1 John 1:1; John 1:14; 2 John 7 Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 4.33.2. Against Heresies, 5.2.2-3 John of Damascus, The Orthodox Faith 4.13. IV. The Spiritual Presence View: A. I Corinthians 11:27-32: 11:29: Does not judge the body rightly: B. John 6: 233 6:52: 6:53: Most assuredly: The Communal Nature of Communion: Ministry Through the Lord’s Supper – Session 6 Pastor Joshua M. Wallnofer I. The Communal Nature of the Communion Meal (Chapter 67) A. Community In Worship What do they do when the Church comes together? They give to meet the needs of one another (67:1, 6). There is Trinitarian worship (67:2). They read the Scriptures (Gospels and Prophets, 67:3). They have a sermon based on Scripture (67:4). They pray together (67:5). They take the Lord’s table together (67:5). They take the Lord’s Supper to those who are not present (67:5). Acts 2:41-43: B. Community As Family 1 Corinthians 11:17-18, 20, 22, 33: C. The Background To Paul’s Communion Correction 1. 1 Corinthians 5:9-11: 2. 1 Corinthians 8:10–12: 3. 1 Corinthians 11:17-18: First Apology, 67.3. Divisions: 1 Corinthians 11:21: 234 Takes: The Corinthians Context: 1 Corinthians 11:21–22: 1 Corinthians 8:12: Didache, 14 Ignatius of Antioch, To the Smyrnaeans, 8.1-2 1 Corinthians 11:23–24: 11:24: Which is for you: Transformation point: D. Justin’s Church Community First Apology, 67.6. II. The Regular Rhythm of Communion With Christ Malachi 1:11-12: Dialogue With Trypho, 14.2-3. Acts 2:42: Acts 20:7: Objections to Weekly Observance of The Lord’s Supper: (1) It could lead to mere ceremony. (2) If we partake less often, it will give more meaning to the act. I Corinthians 11:24-25: 11:24: Do this: 235 III. Coronavirus and Ministry Through the Lord’s Supper The Ministry to Those Absent from Worship in Justin Martyr First Apology, 65.6; 67.5-6 Tertullian, Apology. 39.6 236 APPENDIX G LIKERT SURVEY Project Title: “A Biblically Faithful Participation in The Lord’s Supper Following the Model of Justin Martyr” Researcher: Joshua M. Wallnofer, Doctoral Student, John W. Rawlings School of Divinity at Liberty University Ethnicity (Circle One): American Indian or Alaska Native - Asian - African American Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander - White Education (Circle One): Elementary to High School - Some College - College - Graduate School Age (Circle One): 18-25 26-39 40-54 55-70 70 and up How long have you been a Christian? 5 years or less 6-10 years 10-19 years 20 years or more For each of the statements below, circle the number that best describes how you feel about this statement. Section 1: Names Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. The name “Communion” is an accurate name for the Church ordinance. 5 4 3 2 1 2. The name “Lord’s Supper” is an accurate name for the Church ordinance. 5 4 3 2 1 3. The name “Eucharist” is an accurate name for the Church Ordinance. 5 4 3 2 1 4. “Ordinance” is an accurate designation for the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 5. “Sacrament” is an accurate designation for the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 6. Church history outside the Bible should help us learn how to worship God accurately. 5 4 3 2 1 Totals Per Line Grand Total for Mark 1: (30 Possible Points) 237 Section 2 Participants Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. Everyone should be welcome to take part in Communion. 5 4 3 2 1 2. Only born-again Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 3. Only born-again and baptized Christians should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 4. Water baptism has no relationship to Communion. 5 4 3 2 1 5. If there is any sin in a Christian’s life, they should not take Communion. 5 4 3 2 1 6. The church has no right to refuse Communion to an individual. 5 4 3 2 1 7. Only born-again and Christians baptized as believers should be welcome to take part in the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 8. A person must examine their entire past week concerning sin before coming to take Communion. 5 4 3 2 1 9. Only members of your local church should take part in the Communion meal on Sunday. 5 4 3 2 1 10. A person should examine whether their life is in communion with Jesus before taking the bread and cup. 5 4 3 2 1 11. Church leadership has the right to refuse Communion to an individual. 5 4 3 2 1 12. An individual living in open sin should be welcome to the Lord’s Supper to find forgiveness. 5 4 3 2 1 13. A member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints or the Jehovah’s Witnesses should be allowed to take Communion as long as they believe in Jesus. 5 4 3 2 1 14. A person should meditate on whether any sin is obstructing their relationship with Jesus. 5 4 3 2 1 Totals Per Line Grand Total for Mark 2: (70 Possible Points) 238 Section 3: Meals Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. God meets with his people in meals. 5 4 3 2 1 2. The Tree of Life in Genesis resembles the Communion meal. 5 4 3 2 1 3. There is no ordinary meal for a Christian. 5 4 3 2 1 4. There is a spiritual benefit for eating at the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 5. Communion provides grace for a believer’s life. 5 4 3 2 1 6. There are no spiritual benefits to Communion, as it is only an act of obedience. 5 4 3 2 1 7. Obedience is the most important thing in the Lord’s Supper. 5 4 3 2 1 8. Rightly partaking of the Lord’s Supper confirms and renews the faith of the recipient. 5 4 3 2 1 9. Faith is strengthened in the Lord’s Supper as the believer freshly remembers Jesus’ death and atonement. 5 4 3 2 1 10. Communion observance proclaims the reality of the forgiveness of sins presently in the believer’s life. 5 4 3 2 1 11. Taking the Lord’s Supper can banish doubts and unbelief in the life of the participant. 5 4 3 2 1 Totals Per Line Grand Total for Mark 3: (55 Possible Points) 239 Section 4: Presence Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. Jesus is the head of every Communion meal. 5 4 3 2 1 2. The bread turns into the body of Jesus. 5 4 3 2 1 3. The bread is the body of Jesus. 5 4 3 2 1 4. Jesus is with the bread spiritually. 5 4 3 2 1 5. Jesus' body is only in heaven, and he is not with the bread. 5 4 3 2 1 6. Jesus is not present at the Communion meal since it is a memorial. 5 4 3 2 1 7. Something supernatural or mystical happens when the Pastor breaks the bread in Communion. 5 4 3 2 1 8. Taking of the Lord’s Supper is a genuine encounter with God in Jesus Christ through the bread and cup. 5 4 3 2 1 Totals Per Line Grand Total for Mark 3: (40 Possible Points) 240 Section 5: Meaning Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disagree 1. The bread of Communion represents death. 5 4 3 2 1 2. The cup of Communion represents blood. 5 4 3 2 1 3. Christians taking Communion should consider Jesus’ death at the Cross. 5 4 3 2 1 4. The Christian taking Communion should think about other Christians and their relationship to one another. 5 4 3 2 1 5. The Christians taking Communion should consider their sins and Jesus’ work on the Cross. 5 4 3 2 1 6. The Lord’s Supper should be taken whenever the Church meets together. 5 4 3 2 1 7. The Lord’s Supper does not need to be taken every time the Church meets together. 5 4 3 2 1 8. Taking the Lord’s Supper opposes the forgetfulness of Jesus’ death in the believer's heart. 5 4 3 2 1 9. Communion observance should lead Christians to serve other members of the church body following its observance. 5 4 3 2 1 10. Taking the Lord’s Supper is an opportunity for the church to give financially to those in need and missing from the worship gathering. 5 4 3 2 1 11. Proper Communion observance should lead to outreach to the sick, the poor, and those separated from the church body due to other various trials. 5 4 3 2 1 12. The leadership of a church congregation should distribute the bread and cup to participants present and after the service to those absent. 5 4 3 2 1 Totals Per Line Grand Total for Mark 3: (60 Possible Points) 241 APPENDIX H INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Tell me about your salvation experience. 2. Please describe how you took the Lord’s Supper in the past before coming to our congregation. 3. How often do excuse yourself from taking the Lord’s Supper during worship? 4. How would you describe someone who is taking communion properly? 5. What motivates you to take communion? 6. What aspects of the Lord’s Supper are you unsure of? 7. Could you describe parts of the Lord’s Supper that might make you apprehensive? 8. How would you describe what happens on Sunday morning during this time? 9. What do you think about when you are participating in communion? 10. What would you say if you could introduce the Lord’s Supper on Sunday? 11. Have you ever heard of the church father Justin Martyr? 12. Do you think the ancient church practices of communion should influence how we understand Scripture or practice the Lord’s Supper today? 242 APPENDIX I FOCUS GROUP QUESTIONS 1. What has changed in your understanding and partaking in the Lord’s Supper since beginning this class? 2. How did we get the Lord’s Supper? 3. Why do you think the Lord’s Supper is important? 4. Can you tell me about your experience seeking to receive the Lord’s Supper rightly? 5. What needs to be most emphasized by the person introducing the Lord’s Supper? If you were introducing it, what would you say? 6. What does it mean to have Christ present at communion? 7. What does it mean to partake of the Lord’s Supper worthily? 8. What is the most confusing thing about communion? 9. What do you think of as the Lord’s Supper is being passed out and you eat the bread and drink the cup? 10. For a new Christian taking the Lord’s Supper for the first time, what would you share with them? 11. 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