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Thesis of Master of Education in Literacy, Languages and Applied Linguistics.The study sought to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. The study was guided by the following research objectives: to determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five classrooms, to establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions and lastly, to investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District. The study was informed by the social constructivism research paradigm and used a qualitative approach. A descriptive research design was utilized to
gather data for the research. The total sampled population of 20 participants was purposively selected using criterion sampling technique. These included Five Head teachers, Five Senior teachers and Ten class teachers who taught Grade Five learners. Data was collected using an interview guide, classroom observations and document analysis. Research findings revealed that the nature of class interactions was partially conducive in some classes but not all. Some
learners were able to communicate, answer teacher’s questions despite some limitations in language proficiency. Majority of teachers tried to code-switch the languages used in class in order to create interaction opportunities for learners who were unable to express themselves fully and freely in English. Research findings also revealed that, class interactions were important and that teachers employed interactive techniques like group work, whole class discussion and individual work to promote interactions. Findings further revealed that, majority of teachers faced challenges when employing interactive activities in class. The challenges included language barrier, over enrolment, lack of teaching and learning materials, overcrowded classes among others. The study recommended that, the Ministry of Education through the policy should consider the use both English and the familiar local language (code switch) to cater for those learners who find it difficult to interact because they cannot speak English in Grade Five classes. District Officials, Head teachers and Teachers must consistently conduct Continuous Professional Development meetings to stay updated on new teaching methods, techniques, best language practices and approaches to foster collaborative, engaging and interactive lessons through problem
solving

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ANALYZING THE NATURE OF CLASS INTERACTIONS IN GRADE FIVE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN LUSAKA DISTRICT OF ZAMBIA     BY  MWAMBA MALAMA    A Dissertation Submitted to The University of Zambia in Partial Fulfilment for the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of Education in Literacy, Language and Applied Linguistics.     THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA LUSAKA. ©2024 i  DECLARATION I, Mwamba Malama declare that this dissertation entitled, “Analyzing the Nature of Class Interactions in Grade Five English Language Teaching in Selected Primary Schools in Lusaka District of Zambia” is my own original work, that all sources used or quotes have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references, and that this dissertation was not previously submitted to another University.   Authors Signature: ………………………………….          Date: ………………………..                   ii  COPYRIGHT @2024 by Mwamba Malama All rights reserved. No part of this dissertation may be reproduced or stored in any form or by any means without prior permission in writing from the author or the University of Zambia.                     iii  APROVAL The dissertation by Mwamba Malama was approved as fulfilling the requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Education in Literacy, Language and Applied Linguistics of the University of Zambia Examiner 1 Name: …………………………………………  Signature: …………………………………….. Date: …………………… Examiner 2 Name: ..............................................................  Signature: ………….………………………… Date: …………………….. Examiner 3 Name: ……………………………………… Signature: …………………………………..  Date: …………………….. Chairperson of Board of Examiners Name: Dr. M. Simuchimba Signature: ……….…………………………..  Date: …………………….. Supervisor Name: Dr. S. B. Mkandawire Signature: ……………………………………  Date: ……………………       iv  DEDICATION This dissertation is whole-heartedly dedicated to my husband Dr. Farrelli Mwanakanini Mwiinga Hambulo. Your endless patience, encouragement and faith in me made this accomplishment a reality. To my son Dario Banji Hambulo, your curiosity reminded me of the joy of learning and the importance of pursuing knowledge. May this work inspire you to dream big and reach for the stars my sunshine.                        v  ACKNOWLEGEMENT I would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt obligation towards the following people who helped me in this endeavor. Without their help, active guidance, encouragement and cooperation, I would not have made headways in my studies.  My supervisor, Dr. S. B. Mkandawire for his timely valuable assistance, encouragement and guidance to accomplish this milestone. Your valuable impute, unwavering support and scholarly insight throughout the entire process made it possible for me to complete my studies. Your mentorship has been instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of this work. Thank you so much Dr. I also acknowledge some members of the Department of Language and Social Sciences Education at the University of Zambia for their support during my studies especially Prof. D. S. Mwanza, Prof. P.C. Manchishi, Dr. J. Mwansa and Mr. A. N. Muyangana for their theoretical guidance, advice and feedback, which in turn enriched my understanding and inspired this research. I extend my gratitude to all School Head Teachers, Grade Five Senior Teachers and Class Teachers with their pupils for their generous contributions, time, insight and participations without which this study would not have been possible.  To my relatives, brothers, sisters, special friends (Yvonne N’gambi and Yakhiwe Zulu Chipambala), classmates (Mwila Sampa Kashimbaya, Edwin Mwiba and Tobias Makai) and Chester Mwanza who shared their works of advice and encouragement to complete this study, your boundless support and belief in my aspiration have been the guiding light that led me through the challenges of this academic endeavor.  My final gratitude is, extended to Lusaka District Education Board Secretary (DEBS) for granting me permission to gather data for my studies in the selected schools.         vi  ABSTRACT The study sought to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. The study was guided by the following research objectives: to determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five classrooms, to establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions and lastly, to investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District.  The study was informed by the social constructivism research paradigm and used a qualitative approach. A descriptive research design was utilized to gather data for the research. The total sampled population of 20 participants was purposively selected using criterion sampling technique. These included Five Head teachers, Five Senior teachers and Ten class teachers who taught Grade Five learners. Data was collected using an interview guide, classroom observations and document analysis. Research findings revealed that the nature of class interactions was partially conducive in some classes but not all.  Some learners were able to communicate, answer teacher’s questions despite some limitations in language proficiency. Majority of teachers tried to code-switch the languages used in class in order to create interaction opportunities for learners who were unable to express themselves fully and freely in English. Research findings also revealed that, class interactions were important and that teachers employed interactive techniques like group work, whole class discussion and individual work to promote interactions.  Findings further revealed that, majority of teachers faced challenges when employing interactive activities in class. The challenges included language barrier, over enrolment, lack of teaching and learning materials, overcrowded classes among others. The study recommended that, the Ministry of Education through the policy should consider the use both English and the familiar local language (code switch) to cater for those learners who find it difficult to interact because they cannot speak English in Grade Five classes. District Officials, Head teachers and Teachers must consistently conduct Continuous Professional Development meetings to stay updated on new teaching methods, techniques, best language practices and approaches to foster collaborative, engaging and interactive lessons through problem solving.  Keywords: English language, interaction, teaching materials, constructivism, code switching. vii  LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS  DEBS  District Education Board Secretary UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ZPD  Zone of Proximal Development CIP  Classroom Interaction Pedagogy EFAL  English First Additional Language CAPS  Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement CLIL   Content and Language Integrated Learning FIAC   Flanders Interaction Analysis Category ELPT  English Language Placement Test SPSS   Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SESO  Senior Education Standards Officer HOD  Head of Department FLA  Foreign Language Anxiety ESL  English as Second Language USAID  United States Agency International Development GRZ  Government of the Republic of Zambia         viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS  DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... i COPYRIGHT ........................................................................................................................... ii APROVAL .............................................................................................................................. iii DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................ iv ACKNOWLEGEMENT ...........................................................................................................v ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ............................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. xiii  CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .........................................................1 1.1 Overview ...........................................................................................................................1 1.2 Background .......................................................................................................................1 1.3 Statement of the problem ...................................................................................................3 1.4 Purpose of the Study ..........................................................................................................3 1.5 Research Objectives ...........................................................................................................3 1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................................................3 1.7 Significance of the study ....................................................................................................4 1.8 Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................4 1.9 Delimitation of the study ....................................................................................................5 1.10 Limitation of the study .....................................................................................................5 1.11 Operational Definition of Terms ......................................................................................6 1.12 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................6       ix  CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................7 2.1 Overview ...........................................................................................................................7 2.2 The Concept of Class interaction........................................................................................7 2.3 The Nature of Class Interactions ........................................................................................8 2.4. Importance of Class Interactions ..................................................................................... 19 2.4.1 The Language use in the Teaching and Learning Process .............................................. 29 2.5 Interaction Challenges Grade Five Teachers of English Face ........................................... 32 2.6 Chapter Summary. ........................................................................................................... 37  CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 38 3.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.2 Research approach/paradigm ........................................................................................... 38 3.3 Research Design .............................................................................................................. 38 3.4 Study site ......................................................................................................................... 39 3.5 Target population ............................................................................................................. 39 3.6 Sample Size ..................................................................................................................... 40 3.7 Sampling Techniques ....................................................................................................... 40 3.8 Research Instruments ....................................................................................................... 41 3.8.1 Data collection instrument: Interview Guide ................................................................. 41 3.8.2 Classroom Lesson observation ...................................................................................... 42 3.8.3 Document analysis ........................................................................................................ 42 3.9 Data analysis.................................................................................................................... 43 3.9.1 Processing and Analysis of Data from Interviews .......................................................... 43 3.9.2 Processing and Analysis of Data from Classroom Lesson Observations ........................ 44 3.10 Trustworthiness ............................................................................................................. 45     x  3.10.1 Credibility ................................................................................................................... 45 3.10.2 Dependability.............................................................................................................. 45 3.10.3 Confirmability ............................................................................................................ 46 3.11 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................... 46 3.11.1 Reciprocity ................................................................................................................. 47 3.11.2 Anonymity and Confidentiality ................................................................................... 47 3.12 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 47  CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ........................................................ 48 4.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 48 4.2 How was the Nature of Class Interactions in Grade 5 English Language Classroom? ....... 48 4.2.1 Views of Teachers on the Meaning of Class Interactions ............................................... 49 4.2.1.1 Types of Class Interactions ........................................................................................ 52 4.2.1.2 Teacher-Learner Interaction ....................................................................................... 52 4.2.1.3 Learner-Teacher Interaction ....................................................................................... 56 4.2.1.4 Learner-Learner Interaction ........................................................................................ 57 4.2.1.5 Learner-Books or Resources Interaction ..................................................................... 61 4.2.1.6 Teacher-Books or Resources Interaction .................................................................... 66 4.3 The Views of Teachers on the Importance of class Interaction ......................................... 68 4.4 What are the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English?.................. 71 4.4.1 Language Barrier .......................................................................................................... 71 4.4.2 Over Enrollment ........................................................................................................... 73 4.4.3 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources ................................................... 74 4.4.3.1 Measures to Overcome Interaction challenges in Grade Five classes. ......................... 76 4.4.3.2 Language Barrier ....................................................................................................... 76     xi  4.4.3.3 Over Enrollment ........................................................................................................ 78 4.4.3.4 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources ................................................ 79 4.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 80  CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................................. 81 5.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................... 81 5.2 The nature of class interactions in Grade 5 English language classroom ........................... 81 5.2.1 Views of Teachers on the Meaning of Class Interactions ............................................... 81 5.2.2 Teacher-Learner Interaction .......................................................................................... 85 5.2.3 Learner-Teacher Interaction .......................................................................................... 86 5.2.4 Learner-Learner Interaction .......................................................................................... 88 5.2.5 Learner - Books or Resources Interaction ...................................................................... 89 5.2.6 Teacher-Books or Resources Interaction ....................................................................... 90 5.3 Views of Teachers on the importance of Class Interactions .............................................. 91 5.4 The Interaction Challenges faced by Grade Five Teachers of English Language .............. 95 5.4.1 Language Barrier .......................................................................................................... 95 5.4.2 Over Enrollment ........................................................................................................... 97 5.4.3 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources ................................................... 98 5.6 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................... 100  CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................... 101 6.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................... 101 6.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 101 6.3 General Recommendations ............................................................................................ 102 6.4 Recommendations for Further Research ......................................................................... 102     xii  REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 103 APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 113                            xiii  LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Class exercise on Alphabetical Order: …………………………………...………63 Figure 2: Story of Bibiana and the Enormous Elephant Part three: ……….……………….64 Figure 3: Poem on Rhyming Words: ..…………………………………………………….64 Figure 4: Class activity 5: ………………………….....…………………………………...65 Figure 5: Class Lesson Plan: ..…………………………………………...………………..67    1  CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1.1 Overview  This chapter provides a general background to the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. Further, the chapter describes the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research objectives, research questions, and significance of the study, delimitations, limitations, theoretical framework, operational definitions of key terms and a summary. 1.2 Background  Classroom interaction plays a significant role in improving students’ learning output (Fraser, 2012). In this regard, a number of scholars that have given a substantial contribution to leaning English as well as promoting classroom interaction have carried out comprehensive studies. Babikir (2018) argues that Student-teacher interaction is essential since it plays a vital role in developing a positive trajectory of student academic progress and a social improvement. The developed relationship makes the classroom a safe and comfortable place for the learners to develop positive self-esteem in order for them to engage themselves effectively in the teaching and learning process. Sita (2010) observed that teachers play a significant role in the learner interaction process. To have reciprocal interaction, done by each to the other, the role of the teacher is not only transferring the knowledge, but also stimulating students’ participation. Whenever interaction occurs, students have more opportunity to demonstrate their knowhow of things by using the familiar language.  In reference to teacher-learner interaction, Webster (1987) pointed out the importance of interaction patterns of verbal communications between a teacher and students and how it influences the classroom environment. When interaction happens, teachers may easily check their students’ proficiency in the language use.  Webster (1987) adds that students can increase their language mastery during classroom activities such as discussion, listening, reading and doing some dialogues.      2  In 2013, the Zambian government decided to implement the use of local language as a medium of instructions from grade 1-4 on the premise that learners would learn better in their local language (Curriculum Development Center 2013). Learners’ later transition to using English as a medium of exchange at Grade Five upwards. Similarly, UNESCO (2011:8) noted that, one of the goals of education in Zambia is to ensure that "lower and middle basic education is guaranteed and that learners acquire necessary reading, numeracy and communication skills." The Zambia Education Curriculum Framework (2013) equally puts an emphasis on teaching and learning communication skills, literacy, and language. These policy statements are important in this study because they are the benchmark of the current study in that, the framework emphasizes the importance of active learning and learner participation in the classroom. This means that teachers should move away from teacher centeredness to learner centeredness to create opportunities for discussions. This type of interaction can help learners develop a deeper understanding of the material, as well improve learners critical thinking, communication and collaboration. However, Nyimbili (2017) observed that even if the use of familiar language as the initial language of instruction was introduced in 2013, the reading and interaction levels of the majority of Zambian children were still low.  Based on the arguments advanced so far on class interactions and the reading ability of the learners, Mwanza (2020) also criticized the concept of having regional languages to teach learners from Grade 1 to 4 in the sense that the regional languages do not represent the actual languages of play. Therefore, one would argue that if learners are not familiar with the language used in the teaching and learning process, their level of engagement in classroom is likely to be low. Based on the observation made by Mwanza (2020), it is important to conduct a study to analyze how teachers and learners interact in view of the language deficit on the part of the learners in Grade Five English classrooms. This is more especially that Munakaampe (2008) found that Grade 6 learners could not speak English to engage in classroom communicative activities. This means that learners can face linguistic challenges where they may struggle to understand instructions, participate in discussions and express their ideas clearly. It is against this background that this study endeavors to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka of Zambia.      3  1.3 Statement of the problem Studies have shown that the performance of learners in English and literacy across primary schools of Zambia has been exceptionally low for a long time (USAID/Zambia, 2019). This low performance has also been linked to the effectiveness of classroom interactions. Mkandawire (2022) cited medium of classroom interactions, teacher-pupil factors and faulty teaching among others as factors contributing to the low performance of learners in English language. However, a crucial gap still exists in the understanding of teachers’ and learners’ interactions specifically within Grade Five language classrooms which if not addressed can perpetuate the low performance of learners in English language learning. This study therefore, aims to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia to gain a deeper understanding of how classroom interactions impact learners performance and identify areas for potential improvements.   1.4 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. 1.5 Research Objectives This study was guided by the following objectives:  (i) To determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language classrooms. (ii) To establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions. (iii) To investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District. 1.6 Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: (i) How was the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language classrooms? (ii) What were the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions?     4  (iii) What were the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English in Lusaka District? 1.7 Significance of the study The findings of this study may contribute to the ongoing development of theoretical frameworks and pedagogical principles within the field of language education through curriculum developers in the Ministry of Education. It was hoped that results of this study might play a pivotal role in mobilizing the classroom atmosphere, shed more light on learning processes, guide learners to form correct learning attitude, promote language development and foster inclusive environments in the learning process. By examining learners’ interaction in the classroom, the study could ultimately unlock the full potential of language learning for all English language learners and provide some solutions to interaction challenges teachers face when teaching English in Grade Five classes. The findings of the study may also be relevant to teachers in gaining valuable insight into their communication and facilitations styles of teaching thereby shading more light on learners’ engagement with the teachers, peers and with the material to develop class interaction.  1.8 Theoretical Framework Swanson (2013:122) asserts, “The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. A theoretical framework guides the research by directing the focus of the researcher. It defines what the researcher will look for and how data will be sorted. Borgatti (1999) points that making a theoretical framework explicit is important in research for two reasons: on one hand, it gives the reader a frame to understand conclusions and on the other hand, it reduces the perception of bias. Having provided the above logic on theoretical framework, the study was guided by social constructivist theory propounded by the Russian Psychologist Levy Vygotsky (1896-1934) who believes in social interaction as an integral part of learning.  At the foundation of this theory is the belief that knowledge is not a copy of an objective reality but is rather the result of the mind selecting and making sense of and recreating experiences. This means that knowledge is the result of interactions between both subjective and environmental factors. The model also suggests that input alone is not enough for students to reach their potential. Vygotsky proposes that     5  learning is collaboration between teacher and student with the teacher taking on an authoritative role similar to that of an expert supporting an apprentice.  Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as one of Vygotsky’s principle, which offers a difference between the child's capacity to solve problems on his own and his capacity to solve them with assistance. Children learn effectively through scaffolding by adults. The adult’s role is very important in a child’s learning process. Shin (2013) observed that children are active learners, thinkers and that they construct knowledge through active interaction with the physical environment in developmental stages. They learn through their own individual actions and exploration. Children learn through social interaction. Children construct knowledge through other people, through interaction with adults. Adults/teachers work actively with children in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). To underscore what has been highlighted, Vygotsky’s theory is governed by three main principles namely: Zone of proximal development, Scaffolding and more knowledgeable others. Based on the above arguments, there is a clear indication that methods used during lesson delivery has direct implication to education of a child. Therefore, using social constructivism theory by Vygotsky in the current study would be ideal as it encourages active participation, interaction among learners, the teacher and other components of the teaching learning process and an ability to demonstrate how knowledge should be generated. The theory further demonstrates to an education suited to a child in society. This study may greatly benefit the educationist by producing the desired goals of education especially at the upper primary level. 1.9 Delimitation of the study The study delimits to only five selected Primary Schools located in Lusaka District of Zambia involving Grade Five Teachers and their learners, Senior teachers and School Head teachers. A justification for the delimitation was that this study was primarily qualitative in nature and thus conducted through interviews, lesson observations and document analysis. Therefore, five (5) schools were adequate to provide twenty (20) interviews in turn generate enough and detailed data for the study. 1.10 Limitation of the study Primary schools are found in all the ten (10) provinces of Zambia. Therefore, it would have been more expedient to spread the target to all primary schools across the ten provinces of     6  Zambia. Hence, the limitation was that, the research findings could not be generalized to other schools in the same province or other provinces. In addition, this would not have been possible due to the limited resources available for the research. It was for this reason that the study focused its attention to only five primary schools in Lusaka province of Zambia. 1.11 Operational Definition of Terms Policy: Refers to a cause of action to solve a certain problem.  Primary school: Refers to the initial foundation of education aimed at building solid reading and writing skills. Nature: Refers to the qualities of something. Zone of Proximal Development: Refers to the distance between what a learner can do with or without assistance or guidance from adults or other capable peers.  Social constructivism: Refers to knowledge that is socially constructed where individuals create meaningful learning through interactions with others. Interaction- Refers to communication or direct involvement with someone for the sole purpose of exchanging information in teaching. Class interaction: Refers to the way in which teachers and learners communicate in their classroom. 1.12 Chapter Summary The first section of this chapter presented the background of the study as well as the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, research objectives and questions, significance of the study, theoretical framework that grounded the study and lastly it provided operational definitions of the study. The next chapter reviews related literature.   7  CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Overview  The chapter reviews literature related to the current study and it was presented in themes emanating from research objectives/questions. According to Ghosh (1992:198), in review of related literature, the researcher “should have the ability to pick and choose the best available material, discarding the useless and unnecessary ones”. Literature review provides the researcher with the much needed insight into what has been done in the field or subject being studied, how it was done and what conclusions and recommendations were made. Additionally, a review of literature is important because it contextualizes the current study by placing it within the context of other similar studies in order to strengthen it and provide a significance or justification for it. 2.2 The Concept of Class interaction Scholars have conceptualized class interaction as a way teachers and learners engage to ensure that learning takes place. Arif, Zaim and Refnaldi (2019:311) contends that class interaction in the classroom is a type of interaction that occurs between teacher and students and among the students in the classroom. Tisnes (2023:23) adds that that “Teacher-student interaction is a fundamental element in the training process at different educational levels (basic, technical, and professional) since it has a significant impact on academic performance, as well as on the socio-emotional areas of students and teachers.” The concept of interaction is defined as “reciprocal events that require at least two objects and two actions. Interaction occurs when these objects and events naturally influence one another” (Wagner, 1994:8). Therefore, interactions do not occur only from one side, there must be mutual influence through giving and receiving messages in order to achieve communication. The statement made by Wagner suggested that if learners did not understand the language used as a medium of instruction, it may be difficult for them to engage fully in the classroom activities. Therefore, the main contributing factor to the classroom interaction standpoint is the creation of opportunities for practicing the target language. In fact, the     8  teacher as a facilitator of the interaction has the responsibility to provide approaches that urge learners to practice the additional language. There is a view that the core of the teaching enterprise, which is primarily to get learners to learn, is a complicated process that involves emotional relationships, intellectual interactions, group dynamics and the exercise of practical judgements, all within constantly changing circumstances (Seddon and Palmieri (2009). Classroom interaction therefore is the communicative process, which involves interaction between at least two people who share a list of signs and semiotic rules (Rubie-Davies, 2007). Ghosh (2010:2) argued that the role of the teacher during the classroom interaction is passive yet very crucial. It is the responsibility of the teacher to create a learning atmosphere inside the classroom. Gosh further pointed out that it is through these interactive sessions that the teacher can extract responses from learners and motivate them to come up with new ideas related to the topic. Gosh added that the teacher is an observer who helps the learners to construct an innovative learning process through group discussions, debates and many more. Hence, the teacher defines himself or herself as a planner who plans the best of the modes of interaction that would be effective to invite the learners to join in classroom interaction. In addition, Sundari (2017) mentions that the process is mostly initiated by teacher through oral communication. Combining first and target language, teacher gives directions, presents materials, asks questions, delivers grammatical items, and corrects student error. Teacher-learner interaction has verbal and nonverbal dimension. Interaction also involves eye contact, facial expression, and gesture as non-verbal dimension. To manage unpredictable situation and disruptive behavior, teacher sometimes warn and motivate the students as pedagogical practices in classroom interaction. Giving compliment and humors in the classroom are the sign of personal interaction practices in building rapport. Therefore, teacher-learner interaction refers to means used between a teacher and a learner to facilitate access to knowledge or rather epistemic access. 2.3 The Nature of Class Interactions Goronga (2013) conducted a study to investigate the nature and quality of classroom verbal interaction obtaining in a primary school classroom. A case study design was adopted and only one class comprising of 15 boys and 15 girls was used to study verbal interaction     9  between the teacher and pupils. The study found out that the teacher talked more than the pupils did. This means that classroom verbal interaction in primary classrooms is still teacher- dominated, thus, confirming earlier research findings on classroom verbal interaction analysis, that, in the researches they did, teachers talked 2/3 of the time while pupils talked only 1/3 (Flanders, 1970; Nagel, 1992; Muhammad, 2005; Nyambura, 2012). Educators generally agreed that children learn mostly by doing, yet, this awareness was rarely translated into classroom teaching methods. The study recommended that similar studies could be conducted across grades and extended to secondary school level. The current study is closely related to Goronga in the sense that, it investigated the nature and quality of verbal interaction, which the current study is analyzing.  In addition, the study used only one class to collect data but the current one used four classes to collect data. This means that the current study was able to bring out findings that were more comprehensive. Another study conducted by Maja (2019) in classroom interaction pedagogy in teaching English First Additional Language to enhance learners' communicative competence investigated how teachers in the intermediate phase (grade 4-6) implemented a Classroom Interaction Pedagogy (CIP) in teaching English First Additional Language (EFAL) to enhance learners' communicative competence. The study was part of the researcher's doctoral study conducted in Ekurhuleni North District, in the Gauteng Province of South and it was grounded in constructivism, using a qualitative exploratory case study. Five intermediate phase EFAL teachers from two public primary schools were purposely selected to participate in the study and the learners were from black African families. The data collection methods used in the study was observations, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. In the study, it was indicated that in these selected schools, home languages which is Sepedi and Setswana were the language of learning and teaching for grades R to 3 the foundation phase, while English First Additional Language was the language of learning for grades 4 to 7 for intermediate and senior phases of different languages. The intermediate and senior phase of different languages had diverse ethnic groups and religious beliefs. The study revealed that teachers relied heavily on the use of charts and pictures, and appeared to ignore or be unfamiliar with some of the kinds of interactive activities and other classroom resources that can enhance communicative     10  competence in EFAL. In addition, it was reviewed that most of the teachers did not use role-play during their lessons because it was indicated that there was no time for role-play as teachers had a lot of work to do. Some teachers did not consider debate as part of interactive activities because one of the participants confessed that learners did not like debate because they were not given an opportunity to use it while learning. The study also showed that Classroom interaction pedagogy (CIP), in line with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) interactive activities, could provide learners with opportunities to express and share their experiences using English First Additional Language (EFAL). It is for this reason that in-service training was recommended in the study. Further recommendations suggested that, in order to maintain the use of EFAL in the classrooms, teachers should act as role models and use the target language at the learners' level by employing gestures and scaffolding their speaking skills. This study was vital to the current study since it looked at how classroom interaction pedagogy focus on how learners are engaged in the learning process, which was what the current study aimed to analyze. The current study concentrated on class interactions, which focused on specific ways learners interact in English language teaching. Both studies offered ways to adapt to different learner needs.  On the contrary, Maja’s study findings could not be generalized because it only examined how intermediate phase teachers implemented CIP in teaching EFAL in only one district of Gauteng Province. The current study, however, analyzed the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia.  Mwanza (2022) conducted a study on classroom practices being employed by teachers of English to teach grammar in grade 11. The study’s aim was to search for effective classroom practices in the teaching and learning of English grammar in Zambian public secondary schools. The study was informed by the Social Constructivism research paradigm and used descriptive research design. The study’s population included all the public secondary schools in Chongwe district, all the grade eleven teachers and learners of English language. The sample involved three Heads of Department for Literature and Languages, 7 English language subject teachers and 15 grade 11 learners of English language. The study also included one educational officer. Data was collected using interview guide, focus group     11  discussion guide, and classroom observation guide and document analysis. The findings revealed that teachers used a number of classroom practices during English grammar lessons which included: Cloze exercise, transformation exercise, substitution exercise, spelling quiz, composition exercise, single word prompt, choosing a correct sentence, situation exercise, punctuation exercise, reading exercise and constructing own sentences. Further, findings revealed that teachers and learners had varying experiences regarding the teaching and learning of English grammar. Some teachers indicated that they experienced lack of participation from the learners. Some teachers admitted that the classroom practices, which they used, were effective because they involve every learner. It was also noted that the effectiveness of the practices depends on the quality of learners and the topic at hand. Others mentioned that the atmosphere in the classroom determines the choice of the practices. It was mentioned that the teacher could switch to a different type of practices if he or she sees that learners are not grasping the content. In addition, it was revealed that there is no specific practice, which can be said to be effective. Hence, teachers suggested the use of more than one practice in a lesson taking into consideration the type of lesson and the quality of the learners. These findings suggested that a combination of various practices exercise in one lesson. In other words, the findings suggest the eclectic approach to classroom practices.  Based on the findings, it was recommended that teachers should always teach grammar in context by combining mechanical and meaningful practices. Teachers should refer to the model of communicative competence. The study by Mwanza is pertinent to the current study because for class interactions to be effective and interactive, the use of group work, pair work, whole class, question and answer techniques is not enough therefore teachers should be deliberate enough to use situation practices where learners can relate and be interactive in the learning process. On the contrary, Mwanza’s study focussed on classroom practices employed by teachers of English in secondary school whereas the present study was conducted in primary school in analysing class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka. A study by Abubakar (2021) “Interaction in the English Language Classroom: A Review of Teacher Questions” examined twenty studies selected from the Google scholar on the role     12  of teacher questioning pattern in motivating students' participation in English language classrooms, as well as the classification of modification questions used by teachers when teaching English. The study examined current teachers' questioning patterns before reviewing previous research on the most common question type activity in the English classroom. The question types included display questions, referential questions, closed question, probing question and alternative question. The findings of the study reviewed that, display questions were frequently used by English language teachers as a better approach than referential and other questioning types. The study concluded that the purpose of teachers' classroom questions was to recognize and comprehend the students' level of understanding of what has been taught in the classroom, as well as to connect the actions to the participants. The teachers' questions were found to be a type of better teaching and learning pattern and that the goal of the questioning pattern used by English teachers was to improve learners' language competence and fluency while also connecting classroom activities. The study therefore, recommended that, teachers were expected to use modern questioning approaches rather than traditional questioning methods because they perform better at associating each event with a series of activities rather than a single activity and correctly predicting. The study by Abubakar contributed to the current study in providing a volume of literature on questioning techniques that can be used by English language teachers teaching in both senior and junior secondary schools. The link between questioning types and class interactions in teaching English language is crucial for promoting effective communication and learning. Good questioning patterns used by English teachers has researched in the study can improve language competence thereby influencing the nature of class interaction in English language, which the current study tried to analyze. On the contrary, while question types primarily focus on the cognitive level of questions, ranging from simple information recall to complex analysis and evaluation, class interactions focus is the dynamics of communication in the classroom. Classroom Interaction in English Speaking Class: A Naturalistic Study at English One Course Surakarta a study by Khoiriyah (2018) is another study that aimed at describing the types of classroom interaction, the roles of classroom interaction, and the dominant type of     13  classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course Surakarta. The objectives of the study were: to describe the types of classroom interaction in speaking class, to describe the roles of classroom interaction in speaking class, and to describe the dominant type of classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course Surakarta. In terms of methodology, the study adopted a descriptive qualitative research and the methods of data collection were observation, recording, and documentation. The researcher observed and recorded the teaching and learning process. The result of the research showed that there were three types of classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course namely: teacher-student interaction, student-teacher interaction, and student-student interaction. The study concluded that the dominant type of classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course was teacher-student interaction scaled at 72%, followed by student-teacher interaction at 16% and lastly student-student interaction at 12%. According to the study, in order to improve interactions in classroom, teachers needed to provide opportunities to learners to speak up and give encouragement so that learners could gain more confidence when speaking. Based on the result of the study, interaction that occurred in English One Course was less communicative. The lack of interactions that occurred was very influential in teaching and learning process to train the learners speaking skills. The study recommended that teachers can use media so that learners can be more engaged in the teaching and learning process. By using electronic media, the learners in the teaching and learning process can become more active in participating in the classroom interactions. This study was significant to the current study since it focused on classroom interaction in English speaking class which the current study attempted to address in primary schools of Lusaka District of Zambia. In addition, the use of different interaction types serves different roles in language acquisition and skills development. Chai (2015) conducted a study on the principles and the ways of classroom interaction. The article explored from the perspective of educational philosophy and the development of the theories, which were mentioned as “teacher centered theory”, “student centered theory”, “duo or double -subject theory” and the “theory of inter-subjectivity”. The study puts forward some ways and principles of the implementation of classroom interaction under the guidance of the philosophy of inter-subjectivity. The study revealed that the teacher-centered     14  theory is a traditional classroom teaching which usually follows Herbart's "class teaching" theory. The teacher makes decisions about the teaching content and learners learning process and evaluation, and is the center or core of the class. Learners are passive knowledge container or receivers with a few classroom interactive activities. The students’ initiative, the autonomy of the students, their freedom and rights are neglected. The study also showed that the student centered theory emphasizes the needs of learners and learners’ growth to be the center or goal of the classroom teaching, and the teacher is just an attendant, advisor and assistant. The teacher's role is weakened or sometimes teachers are just onlookers in this theory. Duo or double subject theory where teacher and learner are both the subjects of education. In this theory, the teacher is a director in teaching and the student is the learning subject. The teacher provides the services to the students, but the teacher can also use his expertise, skills to determine the learning content, methods and even results. Lastly, the theory of inter-subjectivity is the core category to construct communication theory of the twentieth Century philosophy. Inter-subjectivity is a new relationship between teachers and students, a new train of thought of classroom interaction, and it is becoming the theoretical foundation of the reform of classroom interaction mode. The study revealed that more and more interactions between teachers and students appear in the classroom but the interactions between students and students has not started yet. The findings showed that teachers are always dominant in the teacher-student interaction; the students are usually passive and inactive. The time of the interaction, when to begin the interaction, the interactive content, the interactive way, and when to end the interaction are strictly controlled by the teacher, not by the students or by both. The students just give the answer to the questions and react to the requirements of the teacher. The interactions between teachers and students do not cover enough students, which most of the time is confined only to those active students about one third, most of the students are not involved in the interaction.  The study of Chai was beneficial to the current study because it gave an insight to how learning and communication happen in the classroom in comparison to how the current study described the actual modes of communication in the classroom. It also demonstrated the conditions that can be set up when employing interaction in the teaching and learning of English language. In contrast to Chai’s work, which focused on broad philosophical     15  frameworks that guide approaches to teaching, the current study described specific forms and patterns of classroom communication that occurred.  A study by Papaja (2019) on analyzing types of classroom interaction in CLIL, presented a study on interaction in a Content and Language Integrated Learning classroom. The study was conducted in one of the Secondary Schools in Kraków, Poland. The method used for the study was observation, which is a major data collection tool in a qualitative research. The researcher observed one bilingual class with learners of ages 16–17 and three teachers for a period of one school year. The main study was preceded by a pilot study. Throughout the whole school year, the researcher took part in lessons of geography, biology and mathematics, which were offered in English. The study showed that the learners had two hours of geography, two hours of biology and three hours of mathematics per week. The bilingual syllabus was based on the National Polish curriculum for Secondary Schools and covered the same topics as the monolingual one. At the beginning of the school year CLIL could have a negative impact on CLIL learners’ interaction in a foreign language with the CLIL teachers and also other CLIL learners which was probably due to difficulty of the subjects (e.g. mathematics), the lack of vocabulary, insufficient self-confidence and misunderstanding. The researcher strongly believed that classroom interaction is a central element in determining success in learning subjects through another language and therefore the primary interest was to observe, describe and analyze various types of interaction present in a CLIL classroom.  The findings of the study showed that, in many cases the CLIL learners were afraid to speak in the foreign language and therefore it was mainly the teacher who was in the center. However, throughout the whole school year, the situation was changing gradually and changes concerning interaction were visible. In type 1, the teacher controlled neither the topic nor the activity. This was noticed at the end of the semesters when the learners wanted to discuss their marks or some other topics concerning particular classroom events. This type of activity was also noticed at the end of semester in regular classes and its occurrence had nothing to do with CLIL. Type 2, when the teacher controlled the topic but not the activity was more frequent at the beginning of the school year, which could be connected with CLIL. The CLIL learners had more problems with understanding the content of the subject at the beginning of the school year and therefore they could not do the activities properly. Type 3 when the teacher controlled both the topic and the activity was more     16  frequent in the 2nd semester due to the fact that the CLIL learners had more content knowledge in the foreign language and were less afraid to speak. Type 4 when the teacher controlled the activity but not the topic was observed at the beginning of the school year. Findings showed that CLIL learners often ended up talking in groups (in Polish) which was caused by analyzing types of classroom interaction in CLIL 51 lack of proper vocabulary as well as language barrier. As for the functions of interactions discussed in the article, their occurrence is not that significant in CLIL as no particular changes had been observed during the school year and therefore no impact of CLIL could be noticed. All the functions of interactions were present through the whole school year.  The study by Papaja is pertinent to the current study since CLIL activities favor interactive and learner-centered interactions. On the contrary, the study by Papaja observed the use of English language in subjects like geography, biology and mathematics. The current study observed lessons in English language.  A study by Sagita (2018) on teacher Talk and Learner Talk in The Classroom Interaction revealed that teachers where more active than learner in the interaction. The purpose of the study was to know what teacher talk constitutes in classroom interaction, what learner talk constitute in classroom interaction and what percentages of the teacher and learner talk in classroom interaction. The methodology used in the study was interaction analysis. An English teacher and whole learners of VII A grade class at SMP N 2 Sindang were chosen as the sample in this study. The class was in the second semester in academic year 2009-2010. In the study, the researcher applied interview questions for the teacher and learners and FIAC (Flanders Interaction Analysis Category). The result of the study showed that the teacher was more active than learners in the interaction process. The teacher generally did most of talking during the lesson. The available data showed that the teacher used more indirect influence of FIAC category. These included accepting feeling, encouragement, accepting or using idea of the learner, and asking question rather than direct influence through lecturing, giving direction, and criticizing. The study showed that the total of teacher talk during lesson delivery was at 56.4% while learner initiating the talking was at 12%. Based on the results given, one would argue that the teacher did more of banking system of     17  teaching and learning where a teacher is figure of authority and learners just receive the information.  The study by Sagita is pertinent since it demonstrated the role of shaping communication and learning in English language classroom and understanding the various types of interaction. The chosen interaction type influenced the balance between teacher talk and learner talk. On the contrary, the current study used 20 participants in collecting data while Sagita used one participant in the study to collect data. Moreover, Flanders Interactive Analysis Category was employed in Sagita’s study. In view of improving the nature of teacher-learner interactions, Lizelle (2014) conducted a study on the nature of teacher-learner classroom interaction. This qualitative study was undertaken by means of a collective case study research design and observations were conducted in two grade nine classrooms at two different schools. The main aim of the study was to provide its readers with greater insight and understanding of the nature of teacher-learner classroom interactions.  More light was shed on the core constituents of teacher-learner interactions and how these influence teaching and learning processes and eventually the teacher-learner relationship. Pedagogy, power and teacher affect were the main concepts that emerged from the onset of the study. These concepts not only emanated from the literature but eventually from the research findings. In addition, other categories like teacher behavior, communication, learner behavior, human qualities and characteristics and relational aspects emerged in the study. The study further revealed that teachers developed emotional intelligence strategies not only to enhance relationship building or teacher-learner interactions but also to maintain a certain level of emotional well-being. The study concluded that Teachers should also aim to incorporate a critical pedagogy approach and learner empowerment in their teaching practice to prepare the contemporary adolescent for a rapidly changing modern society. One can therefore argue that relationship between teachers and learners is extremely influential as this can determine how a learner will progress to the next level of education.  This study was relevant because improving the nature of teacher-learner interaction hinges on understanding and analyzing class interaction, which, the current study is looking at in teaching English language. In contrast, Lizelle’s study was conducted at grade 9 level,     18  therefore, the findings cannot be contextualized to upper primary level hence the need for the current study.  Another study by Saeed, Khaksari, Eng & Ghani (2016) on the role of learner-learner interaction in the Development of speaking skills. The study sought to investigate the role of learner-learner interaction in the development of speaking skills of 52 international postgraduate students who enrolled in an intensive English course at the language center at University Utara Malaysia. This was done after they failed in English Language Placement Test (ELPT) at the point of entry at the university. The speaking skill of the participants was assessed before and immediately after the English course. The study employed a quantitative research method to examine the role of learner-learner interaction in the development of speaking skill of the language learners. Data was collected through questionnaire that were distributed among the participants to get a deeper insight about the role of learner-learner interaction in enhancing their speaking skill. Since it was a quantitative research, the data gained was analyzed through SPSS version 16.0 and was presented in the form of descriptive statistics, which include percentages. The study’s findings indicated that learner- learner interaction played a significant role in the classroom since learners were able to improve their speaking skill in the classroom atmosphere. Data analysis in the study demonstrated that, repeated learner-learner interaction played a central role in helping the students promote their ability in speaking the target language more powerfully and successfully and aided them in language development.  The study’s pedagogical implications of the findings suggested that, there was need to include communicative language teaching materials, which would help language learners, practice language in the hope of improving their speaking abilities through the interactions. This showed that language teachers should take into consideration the need to include meaningful interactional activities that encourage learners’ participation, which in turn would assist the development of the learners’ speaking skills in the classroom.  The study by Saeed et al was essential to the current study since it presented an ideal scenario for how learner-learner interaction can play a role in the development of speaking skills. In contrast, the study employed a quantitative research method due to limited constraint and focused on students at a university to investigate the role of learner-learner interaction in the     19  development of speaking skills. The current study used a qualitative research method instead and its focus was to analyze the nature of class interaction in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools of Lusaka. Learner- learner interaction was a component in the current study. Learner- learner interaction is the dominant pattern of communication in learner-centered classrooms, since it expands students talking time and fosters student’s use of language for learning as opposed to only demonstrating what they have learnt. While research on learning in cooperative small groups has greatly increased during the past several years, few studies have focused on the interaction processes occurring within groups. A study by (Webb 1982) ‘Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups’ stated that working in groups on cooperative learning tasks produced many constructive student-student interactions which in turn enhances learner’s educational achievement, aspirations, motivation, self-esteem, positive attitude to learning and helps develop social skills. The review of Webb focused on the role of the student’s experience in small group interaction in learning. A small group learning was examined and three research aspects were considered, the relationship between interaction and achievement, cognitive process and social-emotional mechanisms bridging interaction and achievement and characteristics of the individual, group, and reward structure that predict interaction in small groups. Methodological and substantive issues were discussed to evaluate and integrate research findings and as guidelines for further research prospects. The conclusion of the study was that an individual’s role in-group interaction is an important influence on learning, and that interaction can best be predicted from multiple characteristics of the individual, group, and setting.  The study shed more light on how working in groups can enhances learner’s educational achievement through interaction. The current study shared the same views on this aspect.  On the contrary, the current study explored further on class interaction in a classroom using other interactive techniques that promote participation other than just in small groups. 2.4. Importance of Class Interactions Roche (2017) conducted a study whose aim was to explore educators’ experiences of their interactions with learners in the Foundation Phase. The theoretical framework underpinning this study was community psychology and systems theory which states that interaction is a     20  dynamic process between two individuals and that people must always be considered in context, taking into mind their family, community and social environment. This qualitative study used a case study design, utilizing a focus group discussion in two public schools to gather data. Ten female educators were used as participants, six from one school and four from the other. These participants were all English speaking and had been teaching for more than five years. The direction of the discussion was based on one main question: “Tell me about your experiences of the interactions with the learners in your classroom”. Other probing questions were also utilized in the discussion. The two schools provided a different perspective on the subject being explored in this study because one was well resourced than the other. The analysis reviewed that educators reported being very aware of both the educational and emotional needs of the learners, as well as the impact of the family background on the learners’ behavior. In addition, the experiences of the educators in relation to the learners were mostly negative, reporting often feeling frustrated, hopeless and angry. They did, however, have some positive experiences with their learners. The educators employed various strategies to meet learners’ needs and their experiences to manage the classroom environment and regulate themselves. These findings were considered in the light of international and South African research and found to concur with this literature in that, educators used interaction to achieve the required standards of the curriculum to meet the emotional needs of the learners and to manage classroom discipline among others.  Additionally, the difference in the two schools was revealed in the influence of external factors. The educators from the less resourced school experienced much frustration and stress in grappling with the learners’ particularly challenging home lives, as well as the inefficiency of the education department, in matters such as assessing learners or placing them correctly according to their needs.  This study was important to the current one because it contributed to the overall body of education research as it tried to understand educators’ experiences of interactions with the learners. This in turn, resulted in better support for the educators as they strove to create the best learning environment for the learners. In addition, educators could be empowered to be more effective in their interactions with the learners in classes resulting in better academic performances for the learners and a more positive experience for the educators.      21  Zhang and Gao (2019) on effectiveness of classroom Interaction which intended to review the latest understanding about the quality of classroom interaction mainly from three aspects: the form of interaction, the pattern of interaction and the roles of the teacher and students during the interaction. The study indicated that classroom interaction was an efficient way to improve the efficiency of classroom learning. Besides the increase in the amount of classroom interaction, the quality of it also requires the attention, which will decide the effectiveness of classroom interaction. The form of classroom interaction should be varied. Classroom interaction has at least two forms, the teacher-student interaction and the peer interaction, instead of only the teacher-student interaction. Both of them are important to carry out the classroom interaction. It was further revealed that to ensure the high quality of classroom interaction, the form of classroom interaction, the pattern of classroom interaction and the appropriate roles played respectively by the teacher and students should be put in proper place and receive deserved attention. In addition, finding suggested the need to allow or encourage learners to change partners under the monitoring of the teacher to avoid the dominant/ dominant or dominant/ passive patterns of interaction. The study concluded that both the quantity and quality of interaction should arouse enough attention from teachers and researchers. On one hand, the quantity of classroom interaction should be ensured because practice makes perfect and on the other hand, the quality of classroom interaction cannot be paid little attention because the quantity does not necessarily result in the high efficiency of learning. Otherwise, learners would not internalize efficiently what they learned due to lack of opportunities to practice and to get scaffolding from others.  The significance of Zhang and Gao to the present study was that it crystallized the forms of interaction, the pattern of interaction and the role teachers and learners play in the teaching and learning process. In another study, Sampa (2023) explored interactive techniques used by teachers of English language to teach grade ten learners in Kitwe, district of Zambia. The study was guided by three research objectives and these were; To determine teachers understanding of interactive techniques used in teaching English Language, to explore the interactive techniques used by teachers when teaching English Language and to establish the challenges that teachers face in implementing interactive techniques when teaching English Language showed that the     22  most common challenges faced by teachers of English Language.  A qualitative approach, which was informed by the Social Constructivism research paradigm, was used in the study. The total sampled population of 20 participants was purposively selected using the criterion sampling technique. The sample size of the study involved one Senior Education Standards Officer (SESO) - Languages, three Heads of Department (HODs) - Languages, seven teachers of English Language and 9 grade 10 learners of English Language. The study used a descriptive research design and data was collected using interview guides, focus group discussions, classroom observation guide and lesson plan. The study findings revealed that teachers had partial or limited understanding of interactive techniques, in that they only used question and answer technique, group work and class discussion as interactive techniques to teach English. The study also showed that the challenges faced by teachers in using interactive techniques included; lack of teaching materials, large classes and limited vocabulary among learners to use during interactions. The study recommended that there should be an increase of lesson time in order to accommodate teachers’ effective use of interactive techniques when teaching English Language. In addition, the Ministry of General Education should standardize the number of learners in a class to ensure the effective contact of teachers and learners through the use of interactive techniques.  Teachers should apply teaching methods that are suitable for their learners’ abilities as they explore the use of interactive techniques. Sampa’s study was in line with the current study because class interaction is related to interactive techniques. An increase in interactive techniques used in teaching English language can increase the overall classroom interaction. On the contrary, the study by Sampa was conducted in secondary school while the current one was conducted in primary and it specifically looked at the classroom interaction used when teaching English language. In addition, the study by Sampa focused on the specific activities and tools used to foster or facilitate interaction with a certain type of interaction, which, the current study tried to focus on.  A study conducted by Nelsson (2020) in Young learners' perspectives on English classroom interaction: Foreign language anxiety and sense of agency in Swedish primary school. The research explored young language learners’ experiences of classroom interaction in English     23  instruction, focusing on Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA), sense of agency and learner beliefs, aiming to inform and problematize language pedagogy for young learners. The study focused on levels and triggers of FLA, by means of a learners’ questionnaire about common language classroom practices. Learners from ten classrooms in years 2–5 participated in the study. Findings revealed that 18% of learners frequently felt anxious during English lessons and that these negative emotions were centered on speaking in class. With this background serving as a baseline, the following two studies investigated learners’ beliefs about language learning and teaching, as well as their actual experiences of classroom communication during English lessons, using recorded group discussions among learners with similar levels of FLA. Study II compared learners in one year 3 classroom, with many frequently anxious learners, whereas study III centered on learners with recurrent anxiety across seven classrooms, in years 2–5. The two studies illustrated young language learners’ beliefs, and how they perceived and positioned themselves in relation to English instruction. Generally, learners expressed positive attitudes to the English subject and the teaching. Regardless of anxiety levels, learners stressed the importance of extensive English input and for learners to guess and dare to speak. Learners who experienced recurrent FLA were confronted with three dilemmas that reduced their sense of agency. Incomprehensible English input made it difficult for them to follow instructions and understand what they were expected to say or respond to during teaching and learning. In addition, the fear of social exposure and negative reactions made them prefer to remain silent and refrain from speaking or pose questions. Nevertheless, these learners favored whole class instruction, as they relied heavily on teacher support, and feared falling behind during individual work, although this setting sparked FLA.   Nelsson’s study was pertinent to the current study since it explored how foreign language can hinder participation and progress in learning. Moreover, the study touched on communication in an English language setting in influencing learners’ engagement with English language. In contrast, the current study collected data using 20 participants and four classroom lesson observation whereas the study by Nelsson targeted learners from ten classrooms in years 2–5 as participants.  Another study on classroom interaction in communicative language teaching of public secondary schools in Napal by Trilok, Datt & Tiwari (2021) suggested that there should be     24  balance in all types of interaction in the classroom that enhances learners’ learning. The study's aim was to find out the classroom interaction situation and factors affecting it in public Secondary schools of Kanchanpur district, Napal. The participants were three English language teachers teaching at secondary level. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and observation of video recordings of classes. The researcher did not record the classroom teaching videos, instead requested his friend to do it for him. In analyzing the study, the researcher used types of interaction proposed by Kumaravadivelu (2006) that include interaction as textual activity, interaction as an interpersonal activity and interaction as an ideational activity. The study findings revealed that all types of interaction activities proposed by Kumaravadivelu were present in the classroom. It was also revealed that the teacher often dominated, controlled and initiated the interaction. Teachers often initiated interaction in the form of asking short textual questions and learners responding through a word or phrase. The result of the study also showed that, the focus of the teacher was to teach content primarily focusing on vocabulary items in the text rather than having real interaction. Similarly, there is a dominance of interaction as a textual activity based on the classification of Kumaravadivelu. The finding further showed that class size, lack of teaching materials, lack of motivation, lack of physical infrastructure, traditional classroom management, mixed ability learners, nature of learners and culture of society were some of the effective factors in interaction. The implication of the study is that the teachers should include all the three types of interaction activities in the classroom, maximize group, and pair work for effective teaching and learning language. The study concluded that  This study by Trilok, Datt & Tiwari was relevant to the current study because both studies emphasized the importance of interaction and communication in language learning. Moreover, both studies tried to create learner centered environment where learners could actively participate and engage with the language.  However, in the current study the researcher physically observed the lessons and interviewed the participants while collecting data for the study whereas, in the study by Trilok etal, the researcher used his friend to record a video during the classroom teaching. A study by Mokibelo (2015) examined the outcomes of learning a foreign language on the learners in rural primary schools of Botswana. The task was carried out through a careful     25  examination of learners’ writings from English language lessons. The study was qualitative in nature and used multi-case technique to investigate the implementation of Botswana language-in-education policy in ethnically and linguistically complex classrooms. The idea behind this study was to examine this from the respondents’ perspective. The researcher used classroom observations, open-ended questionnaires, and interviews to collect data for the study. The sampled learners’ artefacts were from schools where at initial school entry, learners spoke different home languages, which are not necessarily school languages. Literature review in the study indicated that ethnic minority learners have a problem in coping with English as a foreign language. The findings of the study indicated that learners found it difficult to acquire proficiency in English as a foreign language and this lead to poor performance in their academics. Poor comprehension, lack of understanding, and lack of acquisition influenced negatively on the students’ general academic performance. In addition, the study concluded that it was necessary to reflect on the teaching and learning methods that suited learners who speak home languages that are different from the school languages. The study recommended that teachers be trained to use pedagogical approaches suitable to handle ethnically and linguistically complex classrooms. This study was relevant to the current one in that its conclusions explicated the trends in second language and foreign language teaching, which calls for a learner-centered orientation in language classroom. Both studies tried to equip learners’ effective communication skills including the ability for self-expression for meaningful conversations. This may have the potential to initiate learners into ever expanding conversations with their peers or their teacher. Contrary, in Mokibelo study, learning a language may require acquiring new linguistic systems, the current study focused primarily on practicing and refining language use in an English classroom through class interactions.  Gablinske (2014) conducted a case study of student and teacher relationships and the effect on student learning.  The purpose of this case study was to explore factors of those teacher-student relationships that contribute to the development of a student’s learning environment in a particular classroom. The study addressed the following research questions: what specific components of the teacher-student interactions are most essential to a learning environment? How does this teacher describe her process for building relationships with her     26  students? How do teachers describe their process for building relationships with their students? A single case study was used to explore the effective domain of teacher effectiveness. In this qualitative study, the researcher used purposeful sampling with an illuminative case, interviewing, and observing the district ‘lab teacher’ who exhibited highly effective teaching strategies. The research setting for this case study was a large public elementary school in a quiet neighborhood setting in East Bay Rhode Island with approximately 700 students and 75 teachers as a sample size. The researcher reviewed archived records of e-mail correspondence, memoranda, and letters to parents, grading/progress 50 reports and personnel files that pertain to the study being investigated. Semi-structured Interviews, direct observation, member checking and data triangulation were used as sources of data. The results of the case study were practical in nature and included a description of affective characteristics and strategies employed by the lab teacher that influence the learning environment. In addition, the findings provided a description of experiences and procedures that guided the development and maintenance of relationships between a teacher and her learners. What was noticed during the researched was that the teacher begun by building trust with her students, frequently engaging with them in conversations about their lives. This behavior showed how purposeful interaction of this teacher created a learning environment that learners felt supported in and that guided student learning. Further, the purposeful design of her classroom environment served to enhance the learning and student engagement in her instruction. Learners were able to participate in the learning process because this teacher deliberately designed the physical space of her classroom allowing for a continual flow in the instructional process.  Gablinske’s study looked at how teacher-learner relationships can enhance learners’ engagement in the instruction of learning. The current study was linked to these findings because both studies tried to create a positive learner-teacher relationship, which sought to encourage active participation and meaningful communication. Both studies considered the importance of engagement in the classroom environment.  In addition, Camp (2011) conducted a study on the power of teacher-student relationships in determining student success. The study sought to investigate the following research questions: what teacher and student behaviors do teachers perceive contribute most directly     27  to developing and maintaining positive and supportive teacher student relationships? To what extent do teachers perceive their interactions with students influence the academic and behavioral success of students in their classrooms?  How do teachers perceive their interactions with students influence their students’ future academic and behavioral success? How do teachers perceive school culture affects student behavior and academic performance and achievement?  The study adopted a cross-case analysis of five individual case studies of elementary grade classroom teachers teaching in a 500-student preschool through fifth grade predominately in a Caucasian middle-income small town school located approximately an hour from a large Midwestern metropolitan city. Through analysis of teacher interviews, classroom observations, and participant journals, four predominate themes were determined: relationships, culture, high quality instruction and behavior management. The data that was collected in the study showed that these teachers believe that there is value in forming and maintaining positive and supportive relationships with their students in providing for their students’ academic achievement and behavioral success. Findings further showed that, the relationship between a teacher and a learner was defined as a formalized interpersonal association between an authority figure and a subordinate who interact on a day-to-day basis in a teaching and learning environment. The data from the study also showed that these teachers felt that classroom and school culture influences academics and behavior in the learners. They believed that it was important to understand and respond to individual student cultures.  This study was relevant to the current study because the nature of positive interactions improves classroom climate as well as student academic and behavioral outcomes. In addition, positive relationships with teachers’ boast learners’ motivation and cooperation. Since the current study was analyzing the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools, a positive relationship with the teacher is another dimension, which proved to be an important factor that would improve the nature of class interactions in the current study.  Foster and Ohta (2005) conducted a study on negotiation for meaning and peer assistance in second language classrooms. The data that was collected was analyzed through quantitative and qualitative. The study aimed at investigating the value of language classroom negotiation     28  of meaning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. The participants comprised of twenty young adults studying intermediate level English language and the other 19 were American students studying Japanese at an American university. The English learners had studied English for at least four years in their home countries and had experience and higher proficiency than the Japanese learners. The main research questions that the study had to answer were how often do learners initiate negotiation for meaning during the task, and how much modified output do they produce as a consequence? In the absence of the overly signaled communication problems, what interactional processes occur which might be useful to second language acquisition? The study discussed the measures used to identify negotiated interaction and proposed that more rigorous definitions needed to be employed to separate signals of communication problems from signals of interest and encouragement. The study also reported that, learners were recorded during an interactive classroom task, and the incidences of negotiation moves, learners’ clarification requests, comprehension and confirmation checks was calculated by counting only those instances where communication problems were clearly signaled. The quantitative results for the first question showed that the incidence of negotiating meaning was very low. A qualitative analysis of the data for the second question subsequently investigated what was going on in the long stretches of interaction that lacked any signs of meaning negotiation. From the observation, it was discovered that learners actively assisted each other to transact the task through co-construction and prompting. Learners also expressed interest and encouragement while seeking and providing assistance and initiating self-repair of their own utterances. All in the absence of communication breakdowns. Obtaining completely comprehensible input appeared to be of lower priority than maintaining a supportive and friendly discourse. The study stated that, negotiation was one of a range of conversational processes that facilitated second language acquisition as learners worked to understand and express meaning in the second language. The study was linked to the current study because it viewed how negotiation played an important role in second language learning, and its essence for second language acquisition. Both studies touched on the power of peer interaction as a valuable tool for language acquisition. Nevertheless, the study by Ohta was conducted on twenty young adults studying intermediate level English language and 19 American students studying Japanese at an     29  American university, whereas the present study was conducted on Grade Five English language learners. Furthermore, the current study was qualitative in nature whereas Ohta’s study included quantitative and qualitative approaches.   2.4.1 The Language use in the Teaching and Learning Process Mkandawire et al (2022) carried out a study with the goal of comparing English with a few Zambian languages in order to find some commonalities and differences. The study used document analysis of previously published literature to collect data. Publications in some Zambian languages and English were gathered from international databases like JSTOR, Cambridge Journals Online, and Palgrave Macmillan Journals with an inclusion of Google scholar and Institutional Repositories. Content analysis included concepts, themes and key terms. The study findings showed that the English language has an opaque orthography because there is no grapheme-phoneme correspondence in contrast to Zambian languages, which have a transparent orthography where each grapheme corresponds to a single sound and where the number of graphemes is nearly equal to phonemes. Using a transparent orthography to learn read and write instead of opaque orthography would be simpler to the learners. There are some speech components in English that are absent from Zambian languages, such as articles (determiners). In contrast to English, every Zambian language has a unique vowel length. There are approximately 93% common symbols or graphemes between the English and Zambian writing systems. These variations and differences suggest that, pedagogically, learners would transfer their letter knowledge and decoding skills learned in a Zambian language to English or any other alphabetic language, and vice versa. The study also revealed that, in order to effectively lead learners in schools, teachers of early grade classes should be well versed in the regional variations of English and a few Zambian languages. These observations agree with Chanda and Mkandawire (2013) on the fact that Zambian languages are similar. The study by Mkandawire was relevant to the current one because it stressed the importance of learners learning in a language they can easily understand, which was one of the component of the current study since learners were transitioning from using Nyanja to using English as a medium of instruction. However, the study by Mkandawire was a desk study in     30  which he collected data through already published materials, whereas the data for the current study was collected through interviews, lesson observations and document analysis. A study by Mbewe et al (2016) investigated the perceptions of teachers, pupils and parents towards using Nyanja as a medium of instruction in Lusaka district. The study used a case study design to collect data. A case study design was used because it allowed the researcher to have an in-depth and detailed understanding of a single unit, such as one individual, one group, one organization, or one program. The sample for the study comprised of 30 teachers, 30 parents and 63 parents. The researcher used focus group discussions because they were helpful in getting the holistic view of the pupils towards using as a medium of instruction. In addition, observation schedule, Semi-structured interview guides were developed for use with teachers and parents to gain an insight into the reasons behind their perception of Nyanja as a medium of instruction. According to the study’s findings, teachers perceived Nyanja as beneficial to the pupils in the early stages of literacy development because it enhanced increased teacher-pupil interaction in the learning process. In addition, the study established that most learners in public schools use Nyanja and that they are able to respond well and express themselves freely without feeling shy in the process of teaching and learning, as it is the medium of instruction at lower primary.  Contrary, the parents said, they regarded using Nyanja as a medium of instruction as retrogressive and not beneficial to their children in acquiring future success in different life endeavors. The study further revealed that, learning in English created confidence in children and promoted interactions of children with their peers from different ethnic background.  The study also identified the challenges that teachers and pupils were facing in implementation of Nyanja as a medium of instruction.  This study was pertinent to the current one because both studies endeavored to look at the perception teachers have on the use of English language as a medium of instruction in teaching and learning. Nevertheless, the study by Mbewe specifically looked at the use of Nyanja as a medium of instruction and how parents, teachers and learners perceived it. Contrary to Mbewe’s study, the present study looked at the use of English as a medium of instruction in Grade Five going upwards. Moreover, Mbewe’s study employed a case study and used focus groups to collect data whereas the current study used one on one interviews.      31  Mwanza (2020) conducted a study, which looked at the eclectic method to English language teaching in Multilingual Zambia. The study conducted 20 lesson observations in the classroom and interviewed 30 English instructors from six different secondary schools in Zambia's Central Province to gather data for the study. The results reviewed that while some teachers adopted the eclectic method in the classroom and understood it, others avoided it for a various reason. These reasons were lack of English competence among learners, lack of teaching resources and inadequate teacher trainings. The research clearly demonstrated how educators could adequately make use of multimodality and its expanded notions of semiotic remediation and resemiotization. The study further demonstrated how teachers in underdeveloped countries and environments could use the eclectic approach to English language teaching.  The study by Mwanza (2020) was pertinent to the current study because it unearthed difficulties learners and teachers face in English lessons in instances where English is used has a language of instruction. Nevertheless, Mwanza’s study was conducted in secondary school while the current study was conducted in upper primary specifically in Grade Five where learners transition from a local language to English.  Another study conducted by Mwanza (2020), aimed at establishing whether the period of mother tongue use before transitioning to a second language has an effect on improving literacy levels in Zambia. The study used documentary analysis in answering the research question. In the case, recent studies on medium of initial literacy in Zambia were reviewed and selected data sets from the reviewed studies were presented to provide an answer to the study. In one case study which was reviewed, the findings showed that even after extending the period from one year to four years of using mother tongue, the majority of the learners’ ability to read and write was very low. Another observation that was made was that the use of local language as medium of instruction might not improve literacy levels of learners.  Further findings reviewed that teachers lacked teaching and learning materials that would allow them to teach effectively, teachers were not trained on how to transition and learners had not broken through to the second language by grade five. The study concluded that regardless of how long a mother tongue was used as medium of instruction before transitioning to a second language, literacy levels may not improve unless other equally     32  important factors are addressed. Therefore, one would argue that the situation might become worse when learners transition to the next levels of education where they are taught in the language they are not familiar. This situation calls for an agent study like the current one to reveal what is on the ground and probably suggest how best teaching can be conducted in an interactive manner in upper primary school level and in particular Grade Five.  2.5 Interaction Challenges Grade Five Teachers of English Face  A study by Zulu (2019) conducted a research on teachers' and learners' classroom language choices and practices in a sample of grade five classrooms in Zambia's Chongwe district. The purpose of the study was to analyze the transitional language practices among the grade 5 (five) teachers and learners. The study adopted a mixed methods design where both qualitative and quantitative data was collected and analyzed. 8 (eight) primary schools were randomly chosen while 40 grade 5 teachers were purposively sampled. Data was gathered through classroom lesson observation, interviews for the teachers and questionnaire. The classes, which were observed, had 216 pupils. Qualitative data was analyzed through thematic analysis while quantitative data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. The findings demonstrated that the teachers did not have a common way of transitioning as some were using abrupt transitioning while the majority were using gradual transitioning. In the questionnaire, most of the teachers indicated that they used both English and local Zambian languages to teach the learners in order to help them grasp concepts. However, the lesson observations showed that in fact, some teachers switched to English while teaching at the expense of the learners since some of them had not yet broken through to literacy at the beginning of grade five. In view of the findings, it is important that primary teachers should be trained on how to transition at grade five level.  The relevance of this study to the current study was that teacher-learner language practices and interaction types sets the tone and expectations for communication within the learning environment. Language practices can facilitate effective language education at a critical stage of development.  However, apart from using interviews and lesson observations, which the current study used, Zulu included questionnaires to collect data for study. Meeting the challenges of Black English second language South African learners in ex-model c primary schools was a study conducted by Monyai (2010). The study aimed to     33  investigate and describe the challenges facing black, English second-language South African learners and to meet their needs by offering suggestions as to how they could be assisted to learn and achieve according to their full potential. The researcher made use of mainly qualitative research methodology, and in some instances had followed the quantitative method of research. The selected participants were from a specific ex-Model C school in Pretoria, South Africa. The data was gathered by means of a literature review, document analysis, questionnaires, and classroom visits and observations. The study revealed that the black South African learners in ex-Model C schools faced numerous challenges owing to their limited English proficiency, and that they did not meet the requirements to pass their grades. Their inability to cope affected their self-esteem and confidence negatively. The learners did not take any risks to participate actively during lessons as they opted to avoid embarrassment and being teased by their peers if they made a mistake. The study further revealed that, there were other contributing factors to the learners’ challenges. These challenges included teachers who could not assist the learners in the language that the learners understand (indigenous languages), parents’ limited English proficiency, learners rising at 05:00 to prepare to get to school, late attendance of classes, absenteeism, unsupervised homework and a lack of appropriate resources at home among others. The study resulted in formulating guidelines and recommendations that would help meet the challenges faced by black South African learners in ex-Model C schools, and support them.  The study conducted in South African primary schools was pertinent to the current study because it investigated the challenges learners face in learning English as a second language, which the current study touched on. On the contrary, the current study used a qualitative approve whereas the study by Monyai used both qualitative and quantitative approach. Moreover, questionnaires were used to collect the data, which the current data did not utilize.  Problems faced by teachers in teaching English language in government Schools in Telangana State, India was a study conducted by Anjaneyulu (2015). The study focused on problems faced by the teachers in teaching English language in government schools in Telangana State. The study was descriptive research in nature. In order to achieve the objective of the study “Survey method” was adopted. The study included the gathering of data regarding the identification of the problems faced by teachers in teaching English     34  language in rural areas of upper primary and secondary schools. The population consists of the teachers, who were teaching English language and the learners of upper primary and secondary level in rural areas of government schools in Gundlapally and Deverakonda mandals of Nalgonda and Vangur and Madugula mandals of Mahaboobnagar Districts, in Telangana State. The sample of the study consisted of 30 (Thirty) teachers of English from Eleven schools which were located in the rural areas. The researcher prepared a questionnaire for the sole purpose of collecting data for the study. The researcher personally administered the questionnaire to the thirty English language teachers. The data collected through questionnaire was converted in to scoring; it was classified, tabulated and analyzed to yield meaningful interpretation. The study focused on problems faced by the teachers in teaching English language in government schools in Telangana State. The study further indicated that Language is not a subject, like chemistry, mathematic but it is skill oriented where practice is needed to acquire skills of language. All main basic skills of language like listening, speaking, reading and writing are integrated. Most of the studies conducted on the areas of methods of teaching, diagnosis the learning difficulties, teaching Grammar, Spelling, and Pronunciation etc. Studies further revealed that majority of the teachers were not professionally equipped to teach English. Majority of teachers were not aware of appropriate methods of teaching English in the classroom. Teachers felt that size of classroom, lack of resources, and quantum of workload affected the teaching in the classroom.  The study by Anjaneyulu was linked to the current one since it touched on the need of having teachers who are   professionally equipped to use appropriate methods of teaching in English language where class interaction forms a part of it.  The study was confined to rural areas of upper primary and Secondary schools and a mixed method approach was used to collect data. The current study in contrast used a qualitative approach to collect data in an urban set up in Lusaka District. A similar study was done by Elibariki (2017), who investigated the challenges facing primary school pupils in learning English as a foreign language. This was a case of primary schools in Itigi District Council in Singida region, Tanzania. The objectives of the study were to examine the capacity of teachers to facilitate teaching of English subject in primary     35  schools, examine pupils learning environment, and investigate measures for improving the environment for English teaching and learning. The study used a cross-sectional survey design, which employed mixed approach research. The sample of the study consisted of fifteen teachers, one school inspector and three thousand students of standard three and six. Random and purposive sampling procedures were used in the selection of the sample. Questionnaires, observations and documentary reviews were used to collect data. The findings revealed that poor background of English language for teachers, extensive use of the mother tongue in the teaching and learning process, large class size, inadequate teaching and learning materials, were the challenges faced by pupils in learning English. The findings also indicated that there was insufficient time to practice English, lack of activities conducted by teachers in classrooms to strengthen pupils English language knowledge and skills. The study recommended that, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology should provide in service training for English teachers to improve teaching skills. Adequate teaching and learning materials should also be made available together with building more classrooms in order to put to an end to the problem of overcrowded classrooms.  The relevance of this study to the current one was that the findings exposed more challenges learners face in learning English as a foreign language. The same problems affect teachers when teaching English as a foreign language. The current study investigated the challenges teachers of English face in Grade Five classrooms. However, the current study utilized the use of interviews for Head teachers, Teachers and Senior teachers to collect data as opposed to questionnaires and documentary reviews in Elibariki study.  A study conducted in Kenya by Anyiendah (2017) discussed the challenges faced by English as Second Language (ESL) teachers in real classroom situation in East Africa despite their possible adequate training and innovativeness. The teachers talked about the experience and challenges in and out of Kenyan primary school. Core among them was the limited classroom language opportunity for the learners to practice the language. In upper primary, the learners’ only opportunity to use English Language is limited to the daily 35 minutes English lesson. The researcher further highlighted that learners were not given enough opportunities to practice English language in the classroom when learning other subjects because of switching from one language to the other. Teachers of other subjects kept on     36  changing the language from English to either Kisahili or any other mother tongue because of incompetence in English language. This was in order to have learners understand the subject matter. The studies discovered that given that language learning requires a lot of exposure as postulated by Cummins (2006), the teacher of English is left with the sole burden of helping learners develop competence in English within a 35-minutes lesson. This was so because the language outside the classroom and at home is majorly Kiswahili in towns and other local languages in rural areas. Further, in lower primary, there is a mismatch between language policy and the actual practice in context. Ideally, mother tongue ought to be used to reinforce instruction as recommended by the policy (Ministry of Education, 2006). However, the reality is that there is continued use of English, which is an unfamiliar language as a medium of instruction. This creates anxiety and stalls effective classroom participation (Kodero etal., 2011).  These observations corroborated those of Ngwaru (2010) in a study “home and school literacy practices in Africa” done in Zimbabwe. The study highlighted the challenges associated with using an unfamiliar language as a medium of instruction. This revelation was deemed as a major impediment to teaching, learning in that some learners lacked confidence, and this created anxiety and stalled effective classroom participation. In spite of the conducted theoretical and empirical studies, it was clear that these studies brought out challenges that affected teachers and learners when a foreign language is used as a language of instruction.   Ngonyani (2019) conducted a study, which assessed challenges facing primary school teachers in teaching English language. This was a case of Kongwa district in Dodoma. The study used a mixed-methods research approach in examining the challenges facing primary school teachers in teaching English language. The mixed approach was used because the study incorporated quantitative instruments like questionnaire in data collection and qualitative instruments like interview, Focus group discussion and documentary review. Data was collected from a sample of sixty participants through the instruments mentioned above. The study revealed that teachers acknowledged the fact that preparation in terms of content and skills was of vital significance in teaching of English language. Further findings showed that the effect of mother tongue was also a challenge in teaching English language.     37  One hundred percent of participants accepted that most of the teachers teaching English had been affected by their mother tongue or first language and that teachers were lacking in-service training. Lastly, the findings of this study revealed that one hundred percent of participants acknowledged that developing reading habits would improve English language. Additionally, one hundred percent of participants accepted that in order to improve the teaching of English language, teachers should be motivated. The study recommended other studies to be conducted by making comparison of challenges that are faced in teaching of English language both in private and public owned primary schools.  The current study filled the gap by finding out the interaction challenges that are faced in teaching English Language in public primary schools. The study by Ngonyani was advantageous to the current study because it demonstrated the conditions that can be set up to achieve ideal teaching of English Language. However, Ngonyani used a mixed-methods research approach in examining the challenges facing primary school teachers in teaching English language whereas the current study only used qualitative research approach. 2.6 Chapter Summary. The chapter has discussed various literature concerning the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. The reviewed literature has highlighted a number of concerns on the current study. The next chapter will describe the methodology the researcher employed in the study.             38            CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Overview  This chapter discusses the methodology used in the study. It presents and describes the research approach, research design, study site, target population, sample size, sampling techniques, research instruments for data collection, data collection procedure, data analysis as well as ethical considerations.  3.2 Research approach/paradigm The study employed the qualitative approach due to its descriptive nature to analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. Qualitative research was also utilized in this study because according to Atkinson (1983) in Hambulo and Higgs (2017), the qualitative research approach is appropriate in studies were the overall goal is an extensive narrative understanding and development of theories. This is because, the study needed to describe and analyze the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia.  Braun et al. (2013) defines qualitative research as research that uses words as data, collected and analyzed in all sorts of ways. The qualitative approach primarily works with verbal data and recordings, which aid the researcher in comprehending social phenomena from the participants' viewpoints and gaining a greater understanding of the subject being studied (Kasonde and Ngandu, 2013). The method was appropriate for the kind of study in that the researcher was able to interact with participants in their natural settings to observe and make conclusions out of the responses they gave. In addition, qualitative approach involves interpretation and description; it seeks to interpret, describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans by collecting verbatim statements from participants. In view of the fact, open-ended questions allowed participants to offer responses within their unique context, and the value of the information provided was exceptionally high. 3.3 Research Design According to Kothari (2004:32), a ‘research design’ refers to:     39  an advanced planning of the method(s) to be adopted for collecting the relevant data of a study and the techniques used in their analysis, keeping in view the objectives or aims of the study in order to indicate how the parts of the study work in collaboration in order to answer the research questions of the study.  Mulenga (2015) further defines research design as a framework or blueprint for conducting the research. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve research problems. In simple words, a ‘research design’ unites all the vital parts or elements of the research such as the research questions, objectives, aim(s) and others for the sake of enhancing coherence in a research process.  Given the nature of the research questions, the present research was conducted using a descriptive research design when analysing the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary schools in Lusaka District of Zambia. The rationale behind this design was to describe the characteristics of the subjects, population or phenomenon, including their traits, behavior and opinion which aligns well with understanding the nature of classroom interactions. Therefore, information about class interactions was collected using this design as it allowed to accommodate the opinions, views and perceptions of participants. 3.4 Study site The place where data is collected is referred to a research site (Crosswell, 2013). In this case, the study was conducted in Lusaka district which is found in Lusaka Province of Zambia. There are quite a number of primary schools in this district, however, the study was conducted from five (5) selected public schools. The justification for the selection was that Lusaka may have a higher concentration of resources such as qualified teachers, access to educational materials which could influence class interactions and that it may have a more diverse population which could lead to varied classroom interactions in term of learners’ language backgrounds and learning styles. Additionally, the researcher would have easier access to targeted schools for data collection purposes.  3.5 Target population  The target population for the study included all Grade Five teachers and Grade Five pupils, all Senior teachers and all Head teachers from all primary schools in Lusaka. Kasonde-    40  Ngandu (2013) defines the population as a group of elements or cases, whether individuals, objects or events, that conform to specific criteria and to which we intend to generalize the findings. Kombo and Tromp (2006) further explained that a population is the entire set of objects, events or group of people which is the object of research and about which the researcher intends to determine some characteristics. Therefore, the chosen population helped the researcher to select the required sample size from the sample population.  3.6 Sample Size  “Sample in academic research is a subset of the population (Mkandawire, 2012:27).” The sample for this study was drawn from five (5) well established public primary schools in Lusaka District. The sample included: ten (10) Grade Five Class teachers and learners they taught (2 from each school), five (5) Senior teachers and five (5) primary school Head teachers in each school respectively. Basically, 20 participants were selected by the researcher because the sample size deemed to contain a sufficient number of participants to provide the needed qualitative information for the study. This was in line with Rwegoshora (2006:26) who states that “the researcher can decide the sufficient number of respondents to form a sample in a study”. This was because in qualitative studies, generalizations are concerned with quality and not quantity therefore, in qualitative research, the sample size was selected based on whether it was suitable and sufficient to provide the required qualitative data needed for the study. 3.7 Sampling Techniques A sampling technique is a definite strategy for obtaining a sample from a given population (Kothari, 2004). This refers to the technique the researcher used as a tool in selecting items for the sample. To come up with the desired sample for the study, the researcher used purposive sampling technique. In purposive sampling a group is selected by the researcher from a population to constitute a sample and such a group is selected on grounds that it possesses characteristics representative of the entire group from which it was selected (Sidhu, 2006; Rwegoshora, 2006; Kombo & Tromp, 2006). Since purposive sampling is wide, the researcher used homogenous purposive sampling to select teachers from schools based on the similar methodological orientation to primary teaching.  In other words, in purposive sampling, the researcher purposively selects as well as purposively leaves out     41  members of a group. The aim of the study was to gain an initial understanding of the different experiences and beliefs of participants concerning class interactions. To achieve this within the constraints of the study, it was important to achieve a high level of diversity in the sample hence the sampling of the Head teachers, Senior teachers and Teachers. The Head teacher assisted the researcher to select Senior teachers and Teachers that were knowledgeable and informative about the study. The researcher also used participants such as learners who were selected because of some defining characteristics that made them holders of the data needed for the study. 3.8 Research Instruments   According to Mkandawire (2019:142), “research instruments refer to the tools that the researcher uses in collecting data for the study. The researcher made use of interview guide, document analysis and classroom lesson observation guide and a recorder. These instruments helped the researcher to collect primary data from the participants. According to Creswell (2015), primary data is a type of information obtained directly from first hand sources by means of survey, observation, focus groups and interviews or experiments.   3.8.1 Data collection instrument: Interview Guide    This is a common qualitative data collection technique, which involves gathering of information directly from the participants. The researcher used the interview Guide with open ended questions to collect qualitative data from 20 participants (Ten Grade Five Teachers, Five Head teachers and Five Senior teachers). Instead of writing the responses, the participant gave the needed information verbally in a face-to-face interview with the researcher. According to Robson (2002:269), as a qualitative research technique, “interviewing involves the researcher asking questions and receiving answers from the people he or she is interviewing”. In relation to the aforementioned, Sidhu (2006:145) defines ‘interview’ as “a two-way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information”. The researcher administered interviews with the teachers in their respective classes during their convenient time whereas interviews for Senior Teachers and Headteachers were conducted in their respective offices in selected primary schools of Lusaka District, Zambia. The face-to-face interviews were facilitated by asking open-ended questions and probed to seek clarification by taking down notes and recording the responses     42  from the participants depending on the preference of individual participants. The face-to-face interviews were advantageous because they were flexible in nature as they accorded the researcher chance to ask further questions that could arise from the replies given by the participants. Participants were allowed to express themselves freely thereby bringing out additional and relevant information. This granted the researcher an opportunity to gather further and more in-depth information from the participants. Particular attention was given to the responses that were more connected to the main themes of the study. The views of the researcher on the study did not feature anywhere during the interview and this was to avoid influencing the responses of the participants. Each participant was given as much time as possible to put their views forward. At the end of every interview, the researcher always thanked the participants for their co-operation and valuable time.  3.8.2 Classroom Lesson observation Data was collected through classroom lesson observation. According to Clayton (2005), an observation is defined as a systematic recording of observable phenomenon in a natural setting. Creswell (2013) added that observation is when the researcher takes field notes as she or he observes the behavior and activities of individuals at the research site. This technique was used in this study in order to generate information on how teachers and learners interact in the targeted schools. To achieve this, the researcher attended English lessons from four selected public primary schools instead of Five. The Fifth teacher for the fifth classroom observation decided to withdraw her participation from the study so the researcher respected the participant’s decision and stopped all research activities involving her.  3.8.3 Document analysis Document analysis is one of the various qualitative data collection instruments. According to Bowen (2009) and Hambulo, et.al. (2018), ‘document analysis’ is research technique that entails the act of analyzing and interpreting textual materials to give context to a research issue. O'Leary (2014) cites that document analysis may entail examining laws, regulations, minutes, newspapers, and other documents that are pertinent to the study beingconducted. According to Patton (1999:140), “the three primary types of data collection techniques in qualitative research are interviews, direct observation and written documents”. Document     43  analysis is one of the important tools of qualitative research (Hambulo, 2007). Document analysis is also perceived as a useful part of triangulation. In addition, in document analysis, “the researcher is obliged to extensively read necessary written materials or documents in order to give voice and meaning around an assessment topic” (Administrative Methods, 2010:1). As such, the study made use of various types of document materials, which consisted of literature comprising, lesson plans, books, journals and other resources on class interactions. Various supplementary independent internet sources were also used and provided valuable contributions to the study.  The diverse sources proved valuable, particularly when the information corroborated with one another.  3.9 Data analysis   Kothari (2004) referred to data analysis as examining what has been collected in a survey or experiment and making deductions and inferences. It involves uncovering underlying structures; extracting important variables, detecting any anomalies and testing any underlying assumptions. In this study, data from the interviews conducted with the Head teachers, Senior teachers and Class teachers was analysed qualitatively using thematic analysis by taking note of the ideas that arose in relation to the various themes of the study. Maree (2007) and Mayring (2000) in Hambulo (2023), argue that the thematic method of data analysis classifies or categorises topics or major subjects that emerge in the interview discussions. Processing of data in this study involved collecting data from interview guides, lesson observations and document analysis to scrutinize and check whether they addressed the research objectives accordingly. Through categorization, data from participants’ views, classroom lesson observations and document analysis (lesson plan) was analysed on class interactions in English language were checked and emerging themes were generated. These themes were developed by involving a process of classifying, describing and interpreting the data on the use of class interactions. Lastly, the themes were used for presentation and documentation of the information on the study.    3.9.1 Processing and Analysis of Data from Interviews  Qualitative data analysis is utilized in the research. The themes are topic or major subjects that come up in the interview discussion or vigorous documentary analysis (Punch, 1998; Kombo and Tromp, 2006). In this research, qualitative data from interviews were analyzed     44  descriptively using thematic categorization procedures. From the open-ended interviews that were conducted by the researcher, related topics were categorized in this kind of analysis. In data analysis there are no straightforward tests for reliability and validity or absolute rules except to do the very best with one’s full intellect to fairly represent the data and communicate what the data reveals given the purpose of the study (Patton, 1990; Babbie, 2003). According to Patton (1990:376), the case-by-case approach allows the researcher to write a case study for each participant interviewed or each unit being studied while in the across-case approach the researcher puts together answers from different participants on common questions or consolidates the different perspectives on a given theme being studied. The researcher also used a recorder and thoroughly went through the responses of the research subjects to each research question in order to understand the meanings they communicated. This was meant to identify the main themes that emerged from their responses. Through content analysis of detailed data from interviews, the researcher followed four (4) important steps. These were; identifying the main themes, assigning codes to the main themes, classifying responses or data under the main themes and integrating themes and responses into the text of the final research report (Punch, 1998:23). All the interviewed participants remained anonymous, as their names were not mentioned in the resultant qualitative data.  Since this research also utilized classroom lesson observation in its endeavor to analyze the nature of class interaction in Grade Five English language teaching in selected primary school in Lusaka District of Zambia, the next section shifts its attention towards processing and analysis of data from written classroom lesson observation. 3.9.2 Processing and Analysis of Data from Classroom Lesson Observations  Classroom lesson observation was one of the qualitative data collection instruments used in this study. The specific type of observation employed in this study was non-participant observation. In this type of observation, the researcher observes the research participants passively from a distance without participating in their activities. According to Williams (2008), non-participant observation is a technique used for those researchers who want to collect the data without having to interact directly with their research participants. The observation involved observing research participants without actively participating in the     45  teaching and learning process. This means that the researcher did not try to influence the research participants or take part in their group activities. This method was used to understand a phenomenon by entering the community or social system involved, while staying separate from the activities being observed. The researcher observed four lessons from different Grade Five teachers in Lusaka District of Zambia and took down the observations based on the following: the frequency and purpose of interactions, initiating conversation through question and answers, responding and maintaining conversations, teacher’s strategies to promote interactions in the activities assigned and checking if the environment was conducive for interaction or not.  3.10 Trustworthiness To ensure trustworthiness in every qualitative study the research findings should be as truthful as possible. Trustworthiness can be described using concepts such as credibility, dependability, transferability and confirmability (Creswell, 2015; Hambulo, 2016). In this study, trustworthiness was achieved by endeavouring to give a clear and distinct description of the research context, selection and characteristics of respondents, data collection procedure as well as the steps involved in data analysis. In qualitative research, the concepts such as credibility, dependability and transferability have been used to describe various aspects of trustworthiness (Lincoln et al 2011).  Trustworthiness in this study was centered on the study's credibility, dependability and conformability. 3.10.1 Credibility  Credibility is defined as the confidence that can be placed in the truth of the research findings (Mulenga, 2015). This ensures that the research findings are true, accurate and believable. In this study, credibility was ensured through the use of variety of methods of data collection techniques and altering the interview criteria. The researcher used member check to cross check and validate the responses.  3.10.2 Dependability  Dependability refers to the stability of findings over time (Lincoln, 2011). It involves participants evaluating the findings, interpretation and recommendations of the study to make sure that they are all supported by data received from the informants of the study     46  (Creswell, 2012). Dependability was maintained by ensuring that the results were fully explained and every detail was provided. This meant that each process to be used was described in detail so that further research on the same subject can yield similar results. In this case, inquiry audit assisted in making sure that the results were reliable and repeatable. 3.10.3 Confirmability  According to Gunawan (2015), confirmability refers to the degree to which the results of an inquiry could be confirmed or collaborated by other researchers. Confirmability ensured that there was a degree of neutrality in the research findings and in this study it was achieved through ensuring that findings were based on participant’s responses and not on any potential bias or personal motivation. Authenticity is also an important aspect in qualitative research, the researcher seek reassurance that both the conduct and evaluation of research are genuine and credible (Kombo and Tromp, 2016). For this study, the researcher focused on describing the participants’ experiences as faithfully as possible and fairly.  3.11 Ethical Considerations  The term ‘ethics’ means principles of conduct that are considered correct especially those of a given profession or group (Kasonde-Ngandu, 2013). Certain behavior in research such as causing harm to individuals, breaching confidentiality, using information improperly and introducing bias are unethical. Central to ethical research is the researcher’s duty to ensure that research participants are not: coerced to participate in a study and harmed in any way (Babbie, 2003; Omari, 2011). Any research approach or data collection technique involves ethical issues on the part of both the participants and the researcher. As such, this study ensured that ethical considerations were taken care of. For this reason, ethical clearance was obtained from the ethics committee of the University of Zambia before going out for data collection. In order to access schools, the researcher sought permission from the Lusaka District Education Board Secretary (DEBS). At school level, the researcher sought permission from the school Head teachers before interviewing teachers and observing lessons. Participants were expected to consent to be part of the study without any form of intimidation and were told about their rights to withdraw from the study at any given point for any particular reason if they so wished. The researcher sought permission from     47  participants to have the interviews and classroom lesson observation recorded. Responses in this study were treated with maximum confidentiality. 3.11.1 Reciprocity Reciprocity refers to the researcher- participant relationship where a symbiotic relationship is expected. It is a form of compensation where the participant devotes their time and effort to shape the researchers study. The issue of whether or not to compensate research participants in cash or kind as a way of reciprocity is controversial because compensation can affect the level and quality of data (Lincoln et al, 2011). The researcher however did not offer any type of compensation to the participants who volunteered to be interviewed because of lack of funds and that it would have lowered the caliber of the data to be collected from the participants for they might have offered positive responses in an effort to please the researcher. The researcher acknowledged participants’ contributions to the success of the findings and make the investigation available to them upon any kind of request.  3.11.2 Anonymity and Confidentiality  All the participants were told not to disclose or write any name on the research instrument. The researcher used codes to represent the participants and the five schools.  Every response concerning the study was treated with high level of confidentiality and was used only for the purpose of the study. In any research study, the researcher is charged with the duty of ensuring that the privacy of research participants is guaranteed and upheld (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). This was done in this research to make sure that participants were not easily identifiable in a research project and it was a way of minimizing any repercussions on the participants in light of the results from any study, particularly when the results lead to some controversial and sensitive findings.  3.12 Chapter Summary  In this chapter, details of the methodology were thoroughly described for this study. The chapter incorporated research approach, research design, study site, target population, sample size, sampling techniques, research instruments, trustworthiness, data analysis as well as ethical considerations. The next chapter will focus on the research finding of the study. 48  CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Overview  The previous chapter presented the methodology to this study by highlighting on the research design and the mode of enquiry. This chapter presents the findings of the research. The findings are presented with reference to the research questions of the study. Data was collected from five public primary schools represented, as school A, B, C, D and E. Data from Head teachers, Senior teachers and Class teachers was collected using interview guide. Head teachers will be represented by an abbreviation HT. This means that HT 1 will mean Head teacher 1. HT 2, 3, 4, and 5 to mean Head teachers corresponding schools. Senior teachers will be represented by an abbreviation ST. Implying that ST 1 refers to Senior teacher 1 and the rest of the numbers will refer to different Senior teachers. Class teacher will be represented by an abbreviation T.  Data was also collected using lesson observation guide. The findings will be presented using research questions and emerging themes will help in presenting the findings in this study.  The research questions, which were explored, were: (i) How was the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language classrooms? (ii) What were the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions? (iii) What were the interaction challenges faced by Grade 5 teachers of English? 4.2 How was the Nature of Class Interactions in Grade 5 English Language Classroom? The first research question aimed at finding out the nature of class interactions. Teachers expressed multiple views about the nature of interactions that took place in language classes. This section is organized in such a way that it contains main themes and others have subthemes under which the data is presented. These themes with data are presented below.      49  4.2.1 Views of Teachers on the Meaning of Class Interactions During interviews, teachers were asked by the researcher to state what they understood by class interaction. Majority of teachers showed an understanding of classroom interactions as a process where learners are able to communicate with the teachers in teaching and learning. Below are some of their responses.  HT 4 (School B) said that: Class interaction at times depends on the method one is using at that particular period. For example, when using question and answer, that already is interaction. When using group work and a teacher is going round telling learners what to do, that is an interactive way of teaching. ST 1 said that: In my own view, class interaction is a way or system, which teachers use in the classrooms. As we conduct lessons, there should be interaction. Meaning that the methodology of teaching must be interactive. For example, I may introduce a lesson explain about the concept and pose further questions for learners to answer. This way learners are obliged to interact with me the teachers as I ask them question. In other words, the teacher has communication with the pupils in class.  ST 2 said that: I think in my own understanding, class interaction is the interaction that is between a teacher and a pupil. It is the interaction that improves academic issues in the classroom. The more interactive the class environment is the merrier the learners become in the learning process. ST 3 said that: There are so many methods that I use in class interactions for the sake of communication. I can use question and answer, it could be through short stories, poems and many others. Sometimes I use word cards, put learners’ in-group of five, and then give them words to discuss their meaning.     50  Therefore, class interaction for me is the teacher- learner talk found in a classroom.  T 2 said that: Classroom interaction is the way a teacher talks to his or her learners in a classroom situation. There are a number of classroom interactions I use when teaching. I use pupil-to-pupil interaction and teacher-to-leaner interaction. The interactive methods I use include class discussion, group discussion. You can give the learners work in groups so that they can interact and discuss in order to come up with answers to given tasks.  ST 4 said that: Class interaction is a process where pupils are able to communicate with the teacher in teaching and learning. It is a two-way process. As you talk as a teacher, pupils should respond to the questions you are asking. Pupils should give feedback at all times. The teacher may ask a question and the pupils must respond and vise visa. HT 1 (School A) mentioned that: Class interaction in my own view, is a way the teacher mingles with his or her learners in the classroom. It could be in terms of instructions given to the pupils when a teacher is teaching or having class discussions during the learning process. This kind of interaction allows the pupils to talk more than the teachers. HT 4 (School B) stated that: Classroom interaction is a type of learning where a teacher and a learner interact in the classroom. There should be a leveled platform where a learner is supposed to be free with the teacher. Meaning that if we relate it to a lesson, it has to be learner centered where the learner is more active than the teacher in the learning process. A learner has to be free to ask questions, enquire, seek for clarification from the teacher on what they are     51  learning and the teacher is supposed to respond to those questions from the learners.  ST 4:  said “Class interaction is the way the teacher and pupils in the class mingle. How they understand each other in the learning environment. Whether the learner fears the teacher or not that communication must exist.” T 5 mentioned that: Class interaction, well, this is a situation where a teacher, should I put it this way that a teacher would interact with the learners throughout the lesson and the learners have to be more active than the teacher in the learning process. T 6 also explained that: Class interaction is a way you socialize with learners when you are teaching them. The way you expose yourself to learners or the way you make yourself available, so that learners can be free to ask and learn from you and you from them. T 3 said, “Class interaction is the way the teacher interacts with the pupils in the learning process.” T 7 explained, “This is the interaction between teachers and learners in the learning process.” From the above views or explanations, it is clear that teachers have an understanding of what class interaction is. Teachers were further asked to state forms or types of classroom interactions. They indicated teacher-learner interaction, learner-learner interaction, and others mentioned learner-teacher interaction.  Below are some responses provided by the teachers.        52  ST 1 said that: There are different types of interaction. There is learner-learner interaction. For example, if you give learners an activity to do in class, you may instruct them to work in pairs or small groups to answer given question. During those sessions, the learners are able to interact among themselves. T 1 said that:  Forms of classroom interactions include learner-learner where learners are put in groups. When they are put in groups, they learn nicely from each other because they are able to ask questions, which they cannot ask the teacher. When I put them in groups, I feel they learn more by communicating with their peers. T 4 said “Apart from teacher-learner interaction, there is learner to learner interaction.” 4.2.1.1 Types of Class Interactions During interviews, teachers were asked to state the types of class interactions that took place in their classrooms during the teaching and learning process. Teachers listed multiple interaction types in their classes, and the researcher observed these during lesson observation. The common types of interactions spotted are presented below. 4.2.1.2 Teacher-Learner Interaction This type of interaction is a traditional form of classroom interaction in which a teacher poses or explains a question to the learners. During lesson observation, the researcher observed a few dynamics of teacher-learner type of interaction in classes and these included the teacher with the whole class, the teacher with a small group of learners, and the teacher with individual learners. During interviews, teachers also reported the same interaction types with an addiction of the teachers with pairs of learners as another kind of interaction. The teacher interacting with the whole class and in groups were the most used dynamics of teacher-learner interaction. Teachers had the following voices to share from the interviews;      53  HT 1 (School A) mentioned that: There are interactions like teacher to learner interaction. Teachers are using the stipulated methods of interaction in the classroom, which are learner-centered methods, group discussion method and other types of methods that are certified by the ministry of education. The ministry of education has introduced rewards for teachers in line with CPDs. These CPDs allows educators to learn new teaching methods, research findings like the one you (researcher) are conducting to improve teaching and learning practices. Therefore, as a teacher, you need to weigh your options. The CPDs are there to empower teachers on the trends of teaching so when you look at your class and the caliber of learners you have, definitely will select a suitable method to use when teaching the learners. You will explore which method works better for your learners. T 1 said that; Well, teacher-learner interaction is conducive, because when I interact with my learners, we are able to communicate; they are able to answer my questions. Everything I give them to do, they do or respond. They are even free with me even when making mistakes. ST 2 said that: “When it comes to methods, I use class discussion where I ask a question and allow learners to discuss. I also use question and answer method.  ST 2 further said that: The atmosphere when I am teaching English in my classroom is that, pupils are very free, pupils are able to interact with me nicely and I really enjoy it when learners are free and open with me. T 4 added that: Teacher-learner interaction, I normally use question and answer method. It allows me to have that interaction with the learners. When I use question and answer, it works well for me because I am able to interact with many     54  learners in the time allocated to me. I also use role-play. Sometimes I arrange games where we play a game with them. You know sometimes learners they learn through play. It is not always that they can learn using the chalkboard. T 7 mentioned that: “Sometimes I normally use group work so that everyone can participate. But I prefer individual work because in the exam they are not expected to do it in groups”. The data from interviews above corresponds to what the researcher observed in class about how teachers interacted with learners. The findings showed that most teachers were able to exercise teacher learner interaction with learners using question and answer method. A typical example was seen in the lessons that took place where the teacher asked the class multiple questions and the class was responding. Below are lessons from school A and D that were conducted and collaborated with findings on teacher-learner interaction in accordance with the interviews. Lesson 1(School A) Teacher: Do you still remember what we were looking at yesterday in English? Pupils: Yes Teacher: What were we looking at? Pupils: Spellings Teacher: Okay, spellings batini (not so). Pupils: Yes Teacher: Okay, I want you to read this word for me (teacher writes the word “achieve” on the board). Pupils: Pupils read the word. Teacher: Teacher writes three words on the board: deceive, receive, believe and asks learners to read again. Pupils: Pupils read the three words.     55  Teacher: So, today we are going to look at the alphabetical order. Who can tell me what an alphabetical order is? Pupil: Ningayeseko? (Can I try)? Teacher: Yes (ungayese). Pupil: Nima A B C D. Teacher: Nima A B C D yabwanji? Tiyeni tiyakambe. (What kind of A B C D let us say them?)  Lesson 2 (School D) Teacher: Alright, pay attention. So, it is a continuation from the previous lesson. Can I have someone to read for us what is on the board? What is the title of the story? Pupil: Bibiana and the Enormous Elephant. Teacher: You have heard that ai? Pupil: Yes, teacher. Teacher: So, we are continuing with this story. We had part 1, part 2 and now we are going do part 3. After reading, we are going to look at what happened to Bibiana in part 3. Isn’t it? Pupils: Yes. Teacher: So now, paragraph 1. I want someone to read for us paragraph 1. Ndani azatibelengelako paragraph 1 (who will read paragraph 1)? Let us open on page 33. Pupil: Pupil reads the story. Teacher: Teacher helps out when learner is not able to read a word and asks another pupil to stand and continue reading the story. Teacher: So look at this picture, are you able to see Bibiana and other people? Pupils: Yes.     56  Teacher: Anha (okay), that picture is showing us Bibiana and other people in the tummy of the elephant. Who can tell me what else is in the picture? Pupil: Antelope. Pupil: ka kolwe Teacher: ka kolwe muchizungu nikachani (what is kakolwe in English)? Pupil: nika(its) a monkey teacher. Teacher: Correct. I want someone to explain what happened. Pupil: Bibiana cooked porridge and gave other people.  The data from interviews and lesson observation has shown that the teacher-learner interaction was more pronounced across class in the target areas. The findings also showed that teachers and the learners were switching the language from English to Nyanja. Not only did the switch happen in these particular lessons, the researcher observed the same trend in other lessons that were observed. The next theme presents the learner teacher interaction.  4.2.1.3 Learner-Teacher Interaction The learner-teacher interaction type demands that learners initiate the interaction process with the teacher by actions such as asking questions. By asking questions, learners can seek clarification, lobby for help, signal a lack of comprehension, get information and check for a point of view. Some of the responses on learner-teacher interaction by the teachers were as follows. HT 2 (School D) said that: Every term, I have a number of teachers who I need to observe in terms of teaching and learning. And so far, they are doing the right thing. Learners are able to express themselves by asking question in class and are very good at that. Sometimes you tend to wonder because they are so impressive with their questioning. Others request that the teacher gives them more information to enhance understanding of the subject matter at hand.       57  T 4 said that:  In most cases, pupils are not free to ask questions but as a teacher, you need to prompt them. When you ask them if they have questions, they always say “ba teacher tanvela” (we have understood) again when you ask them questions instead, they fail to respond. So this type of interaction is less used. In other cases, I have a few who are not shy to ask me questions in class T 3 said that:  Due to language barrier some learners you cannot hear a voice from them. They are too shy to ask questions because they feel if they make a mistake they will be laughed at. This is something I have come to work with so I usually ask then to ask questions in Nyanja if they are not comfortable using English.  ST 1 said that:  Pupils lack the confidence to interact with the teacher. They always wait for the teacher to ask them questions not knowing that they too can ask the teacher questions. It takes a committed teacher to devise ways and means in which pupils can be encouraged to ask questions in class.   4.2.1.4 Learner-Learner Interaction Learner-learner interaction is the type of interaction where opportunities are created for the learners to interact with one other in class to construct their own knowledge through group work, pair work, assignments, games, discussions or presentation. The responses from the teachers concerning learner-learner interaction are presented below: T 8 said that: It also depends on the topic one is teaching on that particular day. Some topics even mention in the books that they should form groups. For example, if you are looking at parts of speech like nouns or verbs in that activity they may be specific instructions, for example, this group is listing verbs, the     58  other group is listing nouns. So, you would find that when the learners are on their own in their respective groups, even those who are shy are able to participate freely. I say this because when learners are in groups they use simplified forms language so it makes it easy for them to understand and to be autonomous.  HT 2 (School D) stated that: Learner-learner interaction involves learners working among themselves. Mostly, teachers use group work and they normally go round checking what the learners are doing so that more guidance is given for learners to give accurate feedback. That is the most used method or technique in most classes. T 5 further stated that: When they are given for example, structure. You give learner to identify components of words you have used in groups. For example, when you are teaching on comparative and superlative (big, bigger and biggest). They can discuss which word is supposed to be underlined. Apart from group work, we use pair or even drama because there are learners who are interested in drama so they learn better that way and interact more. T 2 added that: “Some topics are specific, you may ask pupils to do group work, pair work or individual work according to the specifications of the course books being used for that particular topic.” ST 3 said that:  The commonest interaction I have observed when I am observing my members is group work. Most teachers use group work when they want the pupils to interact among themselves. I feel teachers can do more and explore more methods that can promote learner-learner interaction.      59  T 6 said that:  Mostly, I engage learners in group work because that is what is encouraged mostly. After Teaching, learners can learn from other learners. Yes, one example can be comprehension were, you read a story then you pick key words from that story and ask the learners to explain the meaning of those words as used in the story. That is where interaction comes in. The learners will try to explain the meaning of words according to how they are used in the story. In addition, depending on how lengthy the story is, if it has four or five paragraphs, learners are involved in reading a line or a paragraph. I am always gender sensitive when picking whom to read. Pupil one to read paragraph one and pupil two to read the other paragraph and so on. By doing that, you are involving the learners to interact. T 3 said that: “Interaction is done depending with the topic. Sometime we use group work or pair work.” The following excerpts highlighted how group work was used to strengthen learner-learner interaction in the lessons that were observed. Lesson 1(School A) Teacher: Okay, now we know that we build words from the alphabet, now I want you to arrange the following words in your groups. Open on page 20. Someone to distribute the books for me. Monitors. Open on page 20 and let us look at activity 5. Let us work together, in your groups, answer activity 5 and 6. Teacher: This group, do we know what we are doing here? We are rearranging these words in the box. Put them in alphabetical order. Who is going be a secretary here? Choose a Secretary. Get a piece of paper rearrange these words. So you should be contributing. This is not a job for one person. You work as a group. When rearranging, you look at the first letter. Pupil: Nacita understand manje (I have now understood). Teacher: Okay, explain what you need to do.     60  Pupil: We are going to do this activity. We are going to find the first letter that comes first; we are going to follow the alphabetical order, so here we have been given words. Arrange them in alphabetical order. 1. Dogs 2. Pretty 3. Auntie 4. Monkey 5. Sandal 6. Bread  Pupil 1: Tiyeni tikalale ka paper (let us write on a piece of paper) Pupil 2: Olo kumbuyo kwa book (let us write behind the book) Pupil 3: Okay, let us start; do we have anything starting with A? Group members: Yes. So auntie yankala word ya first (auntie will be the first word). Pupil: Do we have anything starting with B? Group members: Yes. Bread inzankala ya second (bread will be the second word) Pupil: Do we have anything starting with C? Group members: No Lesson 3 (School D) Teacher: So, in the poem, you will look for words, which sound the same but have different spellings. So we will read this poem in groups and we will discuss these questions later. In this group, I want you to look at which words sound the same. We have to look for the words in the poem and write them down. Who is going to be a group leader here? In this group, I want you to use the verb flies in line one as a noun. What did we say a verb is?  Pupils: A verb is an action word. Teacher: So, we will use the word flies as a noun. What is a noun?     61  Pupil: A noun is a naming word. Teacher:  I am giving you two minutes do your work. Pupil: Madam, here we do not have a group leader. Teacher: Okay, you are the group leader. In this group, I want you to find words, which sound the same as 1. Eye 2. Ear 3. Know. Hello, let us work together. Can I have your attention? Let us go back to the poem. Which word sounds the same as eye? Pupil: Ear.  Teacher: Which word from the poem sounds the same as eye? Pupil: I  Teacher: Yes, it is I. Okay, you can now do the rest of the work I have assigned in your groups as I go round checking what you are doing. 4.2.1.5 Learner-Books or Resources Interaction This kind of interaction involves learners’ interaction with the instructional materials in a given subject. The interactive instructional materials or resources are for specific learning outcomes and they comprise of images, single or multiple pages of a text, watching and listening to media, animation, word cards, projects, and chart or finding information. It is vital to mention that during the interview, none of the teachers mentioned about this type of interaction but the researcher noticed that the learners also interacted with books and other resource books during lesson observations. Below are the teachers' responses concerning what was recorded when they expressed challenges, they faced as language teachers in particular the issue of shortages of books: T 7 said that: Books are mostly in short supply but we make use of what we have now. If it is a long passage and I only have a few copies, I make sure those I ask to read a passage are given a book at that particular moment then once they have read their part; the book is given to another pupil. Sometimes if I have     62  Manila paper and the story is short or it is a poem or dialogue, I write it on the Manila paper and stick it on the board. ST 3 said that During lesson observation for the term, I observed that in this particular class, the teacher encouraged the learners to come with a reading book when they just reported for the term. These books were placed in the corner of the classroom where every time a learner finished assigned work, they would go and sit in that corner to read a book as they wait for others to complete their work. I was so impressed with this particular teacher for their creativity to encourage learners to read in their spare time. When I inquired more, she told me “it wasn’t easy to have those books in the corner. In the beginning the pupils used to steal the books but I had to put my foot down to tell them the importance of having those books in class”. HT 3 (School C) said that:  Well, a teacher I observed a few days ago was very resourceful. I know we do not have many books for our learners but this teacher made word cards for group activities and also had a passage written on calendar sheet so that all the learners can read and see that they were learning. T 1 said that: “I also give them story books. We also need to develop a reading culture in them. Some classes we have library corners, before starting a lesson or after, we expose pupils to reading materials.” T 8 said that I love listening to stories just like my pupils so when time allows I pick a story from my personal reading books and ask a learner to read to the whole class or take turns as I mark my work. The atmosphere is very calm because everyone is listening to the story. Sometimes I even do a story review with the pupils by asking them the characters of the story, the plot and what     63  lesson they have learned from story. This always saves as an interaction opener with the learners T 8 explained that: Madam, I interact with learners with teaching aids such as charts. I display charts in my class where my learners can refer to during teaching and learning and at their own time. I know that by displaying the charts, my pupils can improve in their vocabulary thereby improving their language proficiency. Here are some samples of board work and pages from books the learners interacted with during the lesson observation.   Figure 1: Field data (Class Exercise on Alphabetical Order – 2023) The above figure illustrates the class exercise the teacher assigned to the learners after teaching on Alphabetical order in one of the observed classroom lesson in Grade Five.         64   Figure 2: Field data (Story of Bibiana and the Enormous Elephant Part 3 – 2023) In one of the observed classes, the teacher had a picture discussion with the learners on the story of Bibiana and the Enormous Elephant as illustrated in figure 2. The teacher asked the learners what they were able to see in the picture. Most learners were able to elicit what was in the picture in either English or Nyanja.    Figure 3: Field data (Poem on Rhyming words – 2023)     65  Figure 3 illustrates a poem that the learners recited on Rhyming words. Some learners did not have books and so they listened in and repeated after those who recited first.  Figure 4: Field data (Class activity 5 done in groups – 2023) Learners were asked to do a group work as illustrated in figure 4 on activity 5 so that they could interact among themselves before the teacher assigned individual classwork.  The figures above collaborated with what the researcher observed during lesson observations that learners were interacting with books and resources that were availed to them during learning. Despite the scarcity of books and other resource materials, the researcher was able to witness one teacher using word cards during teaching and learning. Majority of teachers assigned class exercises using course books and others wrote the work on the chalkboard. In addition, two of the total classes the researcher observed had library corners where all the learners who completed work before the end of the lesson went to, to pick a book for reading.      66  4.2.1.6 Teacher-Books or Resources Interaction Teacher- books or resources kind of interaction demands that the teacher makes use of course books and other resource books for the sake of planning and gaining more knowledge in the subject area.   T 4 said that: As a teacher, I interact with different resource books to make my lesson plans for my teaching. I may use the prescribed books but I also use other resource materials and internet as well to consolidate good subject content for my learners. HT 1(School A) said that: Even books, we can use different books. I use books for Jehovah’s Witness just to help learners with reading skills. For teachers, it is not all of them who use interactive activities. Nevertheless, there are those with passion. Others, you need to push. Some, when you enter the classroom, you can see the talking walls in their classes and learners tend to engage more because of the talking wall. ST 3 said that:  I always encourage the teachers to source for more books when preparing for the learners. They should not just rely on the books availed to them by the school but also use books from outside that can expand on their knowledge on the subject matter. T 5 said that: “The books are not enough but we just have to use what we have to plan for our lessons”.        67  Below is a sample of a lesson plan by one of the teachers who was observed by the researcher.  Figure 5: Field data (Lesson plan – 2023) From the lesson plan sample, findings showed that due to limited books, planning is a challenge. It is evident that the teacher only sourced information from a teacher’s guide and pupil’s book only. The findings on this type of interaction showed that indeed teachers always interact with books and other resource materials but they were not aware that it is a type of interaction used in teaching and learning.      68  4.3 The Views of Teachers on the Importance of class Interaction This study's second research question intended to ascertain the views of teachers on the importance of class interaction. The in- service teachers were interviewed face-to-face to get information on this question. The results of the study revealed a variety of opinions regarding the importance of class interactions in the teaching and learning process. The research participants’ mentioned that class interaction is a crucial tool to involve learners in the learning process. Findings also showed that classroom interaction is a two-way communication, which facilitates pupils to make meaningful and comprehensible input and output. Below are the responses that teachers gave on the importance of class interaction during the interview. HT 3 said that: Classroom interaction is very important. I say so because it improves the learning process and enhance learning efficiency. Involving pupils in interaction increases opportunities for pupils to learn more as opposed to being passive in class. During departmental meetings, teachers are encouraged to use interactive activities to help pupils learn more. ST 1 said that: I think that class interactions are very important as they make the classes live and interesting. Teachers that do not allow their learners to interact or take part in classes, their lessons are weak and boring. As teachers, we need to avoid dull teaching environments and instead make these environments more entertaining and educative. I try to involve my pupils in class activities so that they learn better and improve their speaking skills.  T 7 said that:  It is not just about class interaction but effective class interaction that matters in a class environment. When the interaction in class is effective, you can easily see how participative learners become. They are encouraged to take part in group work or in any work assigned to them. In such a way, they learn better. The importance of interaction as observed in my class is     69  that those that are active participants share and transmit information to those that are not very active. It is unfortunate that I have noticed with sadness that the inactive pupils have fewer opportunities to learn better because they do not explicitly express themselves during learning unless they are prompted.  ST 3 said that: When pupils ask more question as they interact in class, they understand the topic better. By asking questions, I can easily gauge the level of understanding for my learners. I can tell if they have understood the concept or I need to clarify further. So, I can safely say that class interaction is very important. HT 3 said that: For me class interaction is very important because I feel when pupils take part in classroom activities or conversations, they feel encouraged to explore further. This builds self-confidence and in a way, they take keen interest in the subject. T 8 said that: “And when it comes to performance, some learners who are interactive may not normally perform that well but others are interactive and they perform very well in class.”  T 6 said that In terms of performance, those who do not participate do not perform well. But, those who participate in telling stories, listening to what I teach, their response is good. The activity that I like is singing. Most of the songs we sing are educational songs. At the end of the day, learners learn something through song. It is in songs that you see the enthusiasm of learners who are mostly quiet in class.       70  HT 1(School A) stated that: It is important to have class interactions because I see how learners share ideas and learn from one another while they are interacting especially in groups. I think they get more involved in the learning process, they feel more at ease, and they enjoy the language of use. In those groups they might not be pressured to use English but a language the is familiar to them.  ST 2 said that: The importance of class interaction is that it increases learners’ competence and improves appropriate skills for communication. Those speaking activities learners are exposed to in class helps them to create their own knowledge. In addition, learners through interaction build confidence to share and learn from peers.   HT 2 (School D) said that: One thing we need to understand is that the learners come from different social backgrounds with different upbringing. Working together may bring about accepting one another’s values and individual differences. They learn to tolerate one another in the name working together to solve a problem. T5 said that:  I enjoy engaging my pupils in whole class activities as I teach. I want my learners to learn together at the same time, in the same space with everyone focused on the same learning objective. This aspect for me is very important because it brings a sense of community to my classroom. T2 said that:  In my years of teaching, I have discovered that when interactions are consistent and positive, the learners develop long-term relationships with their teachers and their peers and these relationships have the potential to help develop learners’ social and emotional growth.      71  4.4 What are the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English? The third objective was aimed at finding out the interaction challenges faced by Grade 5 teachers of English and find solutions to those challenges. The results showed that the most common challenges faced by language teachers were over enrolment, language barrier, limited or lack of teaching and learning resources among others. The challenges will be presented in sub-themes as follows. 4.4.1 Language Barrier Participants during the interview expressed linguistic barriers in their classrooms. The findings showed that language barrier was the most common problem they always encountered because it limited learners’ interactions and it hindered understanding of concepts and instructions in the teaching and learning process. Some teachers further stated that teaching classes with learners who speak more than two languages posed more challenges because some learners speak languages that even the teachers themselves do not clearly comprehend.  T 2 stated that: Leaners do not like using English outside and even in classroom. We know that the curriculum framework stipulates that English should be the language of instruction from Grade 5 onwards but it is pointless to restrict the learners to a language they are no conversant with during teaching. What is important for me is make learning easy for my learners so I mostly switch to Nyanja if I see that am not achieving my intended goal. Otherwise, language barrier is a huge problem we are facing when teaching language to our learners. It gets worse if you have learners who do not understand neither English nor Nyanja. Sometimes we receive new entrants who come from other districts and the problem becomes worse because you want to use another learner in class to help you explain to them what you are teaching in a language familiar to them. Even you as a teacher you are failing to comprehend what the learner is trying to communicate.       72  ST 1 said that: One challenge is language barrier. As we teach, as we interact with the learners we may use English but most of them do not understand. But some are very good. And this normally interfere with the progress because if a learner cannot speak the language very well, even the response is quite bad. We therefore switch from English to mostly Nyanja.  ST 2 explained that: On the issue of classroom interaction, the only thing I can say is that the main obstacle is language barrier. As you know, many of our children are not fluent in English, so as a result, even when teaching, teachers have to explain in vernacular. That is when most of them grasp the concept. Otherwise, after you have explained to those who are conversant with English, they do respond in English and those who are not, respond in Nyanja. ST 4 said that: We do not only use English, sometimes we use our local language, which is Nyanja. Sometimes we use the language of play. But even in English we do communicate. If I ask a question in English and they do not respond, I use Nyanja. The policy states that we need to use English but sometimes you hear learners say “sitina nvele” (we did not understand). Then you begin to explain in Nyanja (kuti mwaiona iyi alphabetical order, ma words nikucita so na so. I explain to them in our local language then they pick up from there. T 3 explained that  The nature of class interaction, I would say we try to balance because our aim is to ensure learners participation. So we don’t usually use English when teaching because in as much as we are supposed to use English in Grade 5, we also use Nyanja just to make them understand. If you just use English, they become quiet because English is new to them. There are     73  learners who are shy such that if you explain in English and they do not understand they will be quiet, so we normally explain in Nyanja and you would see most of them raising hands. The issue of language is a major challenge we are facing. ST 3 mentioned that: “Participation is a challenge. There is low participation when it comes to serious learning because the pupils cannot communicate effectively in English since it is the language of instruction.” T 1 said that: The interaction like in my class is okay but not as expected. Learners do use English. Even when learning other subjects like Science and Mathematics, except when learning Zambian language. When they are unable to express themselves in English, I encourage them to use their mother tongue. When you identify learners who are quiet because they cannot express themselves in English but they know the answer, you just call their names and request that they answer in a language they are familiar with and this case its Nyanja. HT 1 (School A) mentioned that: The response has not been very good. In government schools, it has been a challenge because most of the learners we have, they come from homes where they use their native languages and not English. So coming to grade 5, they normally fail to participate because from grade 1 – 4, we use Nyanja as a mode of instruction with them. It is a challenge introducing English in grade 5.  4.4.2 Over Enrollment  Over enrolment of classes means having more pupils admitted in a class than the ideal or intended number. Below are the submissions made by the teachers during the interview concerning over enrollment.      74  ST 2 added that: “Over enrollment is a challenge”. HT 3 (School C) said that: “Teacher-pupil ratio is a challenge. The numbers are big and also lack of enough materials”. T 6 stated that:  When there was an outbreak of COVID-19, our children were at risk because of poor ventilation due to overcrowded classes. Over enrollment is one of the challenge. There are so many pupils in these classes. So it’s difficult to manage them the way you would want it to come out. You find that in one class there are more than 80 pupils. And we do not have enough materials to use for teaching and learning. HT 4 (School B) said that: As a Head teacher of the school, I face many constraints with over enrollment because first there is free education so we are obliged to welcome new pupils in school. The introduction of free education was designed to increase access to quality education but due to crowded classes, the learners are not accessing quality education. Secondly, over enrolment affects coordination of instructional processes in my school, which leads to poor academic achievement and lastly, it causes inadequate infrastructure. T 5 said that: Over enrollment affects the running of the school. When its break time, we see learners queuing up to use school facilities like toilets, water taps even crowing to access food from the tuck-shop. Then in class, the learners have to fight for learning materials as well. It’s tough madam. We also face problems like poor buildings and environmental conditions because of too many pupils in the school and in particular classrooms. 4.4.3 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources Teaching and learning materials are resources that a teacher uses in teaching and learning situations to help achieve intended goals. During interviews, teachers reported that there is     75  lack of teaching and learning materials in schools. They expressed that lack of teaching and learning materials can limit learners’ engagement, unequal access of information and difficulties in understanding concepts. Below are some of their responses. ST 2 added that: Challenges that we face, we do not have enough materials. It is always a challenge for the teachers and learners when it comes to materials for use. For the teacher, planning is hard because they do not have a variety of books to use. The learners also struggle a lot especially when they have to do work like comprehension were they have to refer to the story when answering questions because some learners may have access to learning materials than others.          ST 1 said that:  “Teaching and learning materials are the tools for teachers and learners so without these tools, teaching and learning can be a challenge”. This is so because learners find it difficult to grasp concepts without the support of visual aids, stimulation or hands-on activities.  T 4 said that:  The challenge is that, most of the pupils cannot read due to luck of reading materials. These children are not exposed to books. The only time they see books is when they are asked to read from a course book in class. In their own spare time, we do not have other books to help them improve their reading. Even numbers are big so you find that they fight for the few books to do work.  HT 4 said that: “Lack of teaching materials. The other challenge is over enrollment. As a result, teachers cannot manage to interact with every learner”.       76  T 6 said that:  With the technology that has advanced now. I am able to download some online books for my planning but for the pupils it is difficult. If you are not resourceful as a teacher, you end up limiting yourself to information and knowledge.  HT 1 (School A) explained that: The problem at hand is lack of adequate materials to aid teaching and learning. This problem causes a lot of stress on the teachers and learners because teachers are not able to plan to their fullest potential and learners are not learning as expected because they are not given the necessary learning materials to stay interested and actively participate in classroom discussions. T8 said that: “Many schools lack basic resources like text books, chalkboards, desks. The lack of these resources affect the quality of education.” While T 5 said that: ‘Books are not enough, so they have to share and some are disadvantaged”. 4.4.3.1 Measures to Overcome Interaction challenges in Grade Five classes.  The teachers voiced out the following measures to overcome the challenges mentioned in the interview. 4.4.3.2 Language Barrier Majority of teachers revealed that learners had challenges in understanding assignments due to limited vocabulary thereby failing to express themselves in English, teachers therefore code switched languages to accord them opportunities to interact in class. ST 1 said that:  Instances where a learner fail to participate because they cannot speak English in or outside the classroom. I would use both English and Nyanja. I would teach in English and where I see that the learners are not getting it, I would go back to Nyanja so that communication can flow. In such a way, you will see more hands from learners trying to answer question. I     77  also encourage my learners to use English while they are on breaks so that the get used to using the language of instruction when they are on their own. ST 1 further added to say:  There are situations where the child might be intelligent, very good in mathematics but they are just quiet during English lesson.  For those, if we teach using teacher-learner interaction using question and answer and they do not raise their hands, deliberately, you point at them and see how they would come out. However, others will still be quiet because they fear making mistakes and being laughed at if they make a mistake. T 1 said that: For those who cannot speak English, we try force them. Forcing them to use English. Now they may not see the importance at that moment. English being the language used worldwide, they just have to learn. They just need to know that we learn by making mistakes. Nevertheless, if you are not practicing, it means that you will not know. Another solution for me, I think we need to go back, even below grade 5 so that Nyanja can go side by side with English from grade 1-7. ST 3 said that:  Challenges can be mitigated by encouraging and motivating the learners during teaching and learning. As a teacher, you can point at those learners who do not raise up their hands. I also encourage them to be free, not to fear fellow pupils or me when they want to contribute in class. ST 4 added that: I think deploying teachers in places where they come from is better because when learners cannot understand English, you have to explain in a local language but if the teacher is not conversant with that local language, it becomes a big challenge. The teacher is now forced to use a learner who     78  can understand English to translate in the language that the other learner understands. 4.4.3.3 Over Enrollment  Majority of teachers revealed that learners had limited time for class interactions due to overcrowded classes but some schools have adopted Catch up programs to help struggling learners and engage teachers in CPDs to equip them with new teaching methods. Below are the teachers’ views. T 3 stated that: It is difficult because the policy says that every child should come to school. Therefore, the government should build schools. We also need Continuous Professional Development (CPD) to remind teachers or educate them on the methods or techniques that can be employed to improve class interactions.  HT 2 (School D) said that To overcome some challenges, I have mentioned, the school has adopted a ‘Catch Up Programme’ where we help learners who are struggling in class. Some hours are created for them before or after classes to do extra work in literacy and numerus activities. The catch up classes are conducted every day of the week that is Monday to Friday. T 5 said that  Teaching and learning of information subjects must be reduced in order to create more time for English language lessons. The current situation is that English lessons are taught within 40 minutes, which is not enough especially that this is a single period. When it is a double, the time is enough to engage most learners during teaching and learning process.       79  T6 said that:  To decongest the classes, we appeal to the government of Zambia to construct more schools and upgrade the existing one. Not just that, the government should employ more teachers to cope with the increase in enrolment. HT 4 (School B) said that:  Most of our learners sit on the floor due to lack of desks. The classes are too full so we need more desks to accommodate every child. We are happy the government is looking into this problem and they have started delivering desks to various schools across the country. 4.4.3.4 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources Majority of teachers revealed that schools should encourage class library corners and learners should be engaged in literacy programs. Teachers further said, the Ministry of Education through Curriculum Development Center should distribute enough teaching and learning materials in schools. ST 2 stated that: I think the only way we can improve on those challenges is encouraging learners to develop interest in reading books. Even utilizing clubs like spelling club, Debate club and other literacy programmes that can help learners to improve their language proficiency. ST 2 mentioned that: The Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) should come in and provide a variety of learning materials. If we are to do well, the books have to be provided in schools. In addition, infrastructure, GRZ should come in to build more classroom blocks to decongest the overcrowded classrooms. More teachers should be deployed to curb the shortages of teachers in most schools. Otherwise, as a school, we are trying to push to ensure that learners are exposed to different interactive methods in their learning.     80  T 2 said that:  The best way, like the way I have seen at this school, we do not have enough teachers. Therefore, you find that in other classes, there is no teacher to teach the pupils so they start making noise and end up wasting learning time. So, we need more teachers to be deployed at this school and in a situation where there is no teacher, learners can then be given work but only if the books are enough for them to work the activity quietly. T 4 said that: Class interaction is a very important aspect in teaching English language. The only thing we need to do is addressing the challenges, which we face as teachers. Let the government flood schools with books and teachers to help decongest classes and make teaching and learning easy. T 5 said that   We also need to have active library corners with a variety of local and foreign books in all the classes to create a reading atmosphere for the pupils. Furthermore, T 7 said that: “The government should provide teaching material like course books and other supplementary books for the pupils to use in class as well as when they have free time”. 4.5 Chapter Summary This chapter presented the findings of the study. The research findings were presented in line with the research questions. Through interviews and classroom lesson observations, the researcher was able to collect the data that the chapter presented. The next chapter discusses the findings of the study.81  CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.1 Overview This chapter discusses the findings of the research in relation to the objectives of the study. The chapter revisits the various themes that emerged in chapter four. The discussion has been grouped into three main themes reflecting this study’s objectives as follows: 1. Determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English language classrooms, 2. Establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions, 3. Investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade 5 teachers of English in Lusaka District. 5.2 The nature of class interactions in Grade 5 English language classroom The first research objective aimed at finding out the nature of class interactions. Majority of teachers expressed multiple views about the nature of class interactions that took place in language classes. However, it was imperative to first find out how teachers understood the term class interaction. 5.2.1 Views of Teachers on the Meaning of Class Interactions The findings determined that majority of teachers showed an understanding of classroom interactions as a process where pupils are able to communicate with the teachers in teaching and learning process. These findings correlated with those of Wagner (1994; 8) who defined class interaction as “reciprocal events that require at least two objects and two actions. Wagner added that interaction occurs when these objects and events naturally influence one another. Hence, this implied that understanding class interaction gave teachers the power to choose the right to interaction and provide learners with real life practices in communication. Further, it could also imply that, teachers could equip themselves with the knowledge and skills to make informed decisions about the appropriate methods to use in order to promote interaction. In support, Trilok, Datt & Tiwari (2021) showed that classroom interaction is an interaction that takes place either between teacher and students or among the students in the class. Additionally, majority of participants emphasized that class interaction is a two-way process and some further explained that during classroom interaction, there should be a leveled platform where a learner is supposed to be free with the teacher in the learning process. A learner has to be free to ask questions, enquire, seek for clarification from the     82  teacher on what they are learning and the teacher is supposed to respond to those questions. Ghosh (2010:2) who argued that the role of the teacher during the classroom interaction is passive yet very crucial also supports the foregoing.  This implies that it is the responsibility of the teacher, to create an interactive learning atmosphere inside the classroom. Further, one of the interesting findings in the current study showed that a few teachers viewed interaction as a way to expose or make themselves available to the learners to create positive relationships.  This implied that there was need for teacher to invest in the learner’s success and wellbeing, in turn, creates a ripple effect, which could foster confidence, enhance learning and build an engaging classroom environment where all learners thrive. In line with the findings, Zhang and Gao (2019) suggested that to ensure the high quality of classroom interaction, the form of classroom interaction, the pattern of classroom interaction and the appropriate roles played respectively by the teacher and students should be put in proper place and receive deserved attention. Similarly, Seddon and Palmieri (2009) indicated that there is a view that the core of the teaching enterprise, which is primarily to get learners to learn, is a complicated process that involves emotional relationships, intellectual interactions, group dynamics and the exercise of practical judgements, all within constantly changing circumstances. This implied that for interaction to be effective, the teacher has to be fully available to the needs of the learners in the learning process.   Additionally, the finding revealed that while some teachers explained the meaning of class interaction others pointed out the need to use appropriate teaching methods that employed interactive techniques. This implied that, the use of appropriate teaching methods could create classroom environments where learners could have a sense of belonging, valued and empowered to learn in an interactive way. However, in a study conducted by Sampa (2023) reviewed that it was evident that the teachers’ partial knowledge of defining teaching techniques was associated to teaching methods and principles of teaching. According to Sampa, this implied that the teachers were aware of the methods and approaches in language teaching but did not understand them. This entailed that there is need to expose teachers to Continuous Professional Developments (CPDs) to keep teachers updated with learning methods in the classroom. Moreover, as the teachers move towards using appropriate approaches or methods to promote interaction, they can transform learning experiences     83  where learners could move from passive to active and isolated to collaborative situations. It is also important to remember that specific teaching methods or techniques employed during teaching depended on the teaching context in terms of subject matter. The findings of the current study further revealed that some teachers explained that the more interactive the class environment is the merrier the learners become in the learning process.  Gosh (2010) further pointed out that through interactive sessions the teacher can extract responses from learners and motivate them to come up with new ideas related to the topic. In contrast to the aforementioned, during lesson observation, it was observed that, majority of teachers utilized none probing question and answer techniques. This is because the questions asked could not generate new ideas from the learners. Most of the responses from the learners where ‘yes’ or ‘no’ without any follow up questions or responses. The implication of not asking probing questions is that it restricts learners understanding, limits engagement in terms of interaction and can hinder teachers’ ability to effectively assess learners’ deep knowledge of taught concepts. This can lead to misjudging learners’ progress and providing inappropriate support. Moreover, Abubakar (2021) in agreement stated that the purpose of teachers' classroom questions was to recognize and comprehend the students' level of understanding of what has been taught in the classroom, as well as to connect the actions to the participants. Additionally, the study expressed that majority of teachers did not help or probe learners to further construct their own knowledge in class or group discussions. The learners were not able to explain further on some of the asked questions except for very few ones who could say a sentence or two in their responses. This coincided with the study of Sagita (2018) who revealed that teachers where more active than learner in the interaction. Sagita’s study further reviewed that teachers generally did most of talking during the lesson. The implication is that, the main contributing factor to the classroom interaction is the creation of opportunities for practicing the target language. In fact, the teacher as facilitator of the interaction has the responsibility to provide approaches that urge learners to practice the additional language while teaching. Similarly, findings reported by Abubakar (2021) examined current teachers' questioning patterns which included display questions, referential questions, closed question, probing question and alternative question reviewed that, display questions were     84  frequently used by English language teachers as a better approach than referential and other questioning types. The evidence from the current study suggested that the lessons observed did not fully explore what Abubakar stressed on. Teachers in most cases used the traditional questioning pattern rather than modern questioning patterns. This implied that true interaction required the teacher to ask stimulating question to promote communication with learners, deepen the mutual understanding of each other, and make both sides enjoy learning in happiness.  By using modern questioning patterns learners’ engagement can be stimulated, promote further discussions and creativity as well as critical thinking.  The findings of the study also revealed that, there were multiple interaction types employed in Grade Five classes. Majority of teachers were able to state the types of interactions employed in teaching and learning process. These interaction types included teacher-learner interaction, learner-learner interaction, and others mentioned learner-teacher interaction. These findings collaborated with those of Khoiriyah (2018) who reviewed that there are three types of classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course namely: teacher-student interaction, student-teacher interaction, and student-student interaction. The study by Khoiriyah indicated that the dominant type of classroom interaction in speaking class at English One Course was teacher-student interaction, followed by student teacher and lastly student-student interaction. Contrary to what was observed in the lesson observations, the current study showed that the most dominant type of interaction was teacher-learner, followed by learner-learner and learner- teacher. The teachers interacted with the learners and learners interacted with one another more than they interacted with the teacher. Khoiriyah further indicated that, in order to improve interactions in classroom, teachers needed to provide opportunities to learners to speak up and give encouragement so that learners could gain more confidence when speaking.  In addition, one of the repeated response from the participants was that learners should be more active than the teacher. This finding points out to the theory of constructivism.  This demonstrated that teachers needed to make use of constructive learning were they could use teaching strategies and activities that could develop new ideas, make learners more productive and motivated while learning. The results were consistent with those of Rogti, (2019) who indicated that, “the benefits of constructivist teaching and learning are not only     85  in favor of the student, but also the teacher who can learn new information and develop more professional teaching methods. In constructivist teaching, teachers transform from being the transmitters of knowledge to a guide and facilitator of knowledge in the learning process. This therefore means that a teacher needs to be a facilitator of the teaching and learning process as mentioned earlier on. 5.2.2 Teacher-Learner Interaction The findings of the study determined that teacher-learner interaction was the most predominant interaction observed. The researcher observed the following teacher-learner interaction dynamics: whole class, groups and with individual learners. Some teachers mentioned interaction in pairs during the interview but the researcher did not have a glimpse of pair work in any lesson that was observed. The teacher interacting with the whole class was the most common type of interaction that was observed.  Additionally, further finding confirmed that some teachers were using the stipulated methods of interaction in the classroom, which are learner-centered methods, group discussion method and other types of methods that are certified by the Ministry of Education. It was highlighted that the Ministry of Education has introduced rewards for teachers in line with CPDs that are conducted in respective schools. This is a good move in that it will be helping teachers to stay committed to the CPDs meetings and learning new methods of teaching. In line with the aforementioned, Lizelle (2014) shed more light on the core constituents of teacher-learner interactions and how these influence teaching and learning processes and eventually the teacher-learner relationship. The study revealed that pedagogy, power and teacher affect were the main concepts that emerged from the onset of the study. These concepts not only emanated from the literature but eventually from the research findings. The study concluded that teachers should also aim to incorporate a critical pedagogy approach and learner empowerment in their teaching practice to prepare the contemporary adolescent for a rapidly changing modern society. The implication is that, CPDs will allow educators to learn new teaching methods and empower teachers on the trends of teaching. Teachers therefore, must select a variety of methods that suit the abilities of the learners. Unfortunately, in some schools, the CPDs are not that consistent and because of that, some teachers are not that exposed to using the modern trends of teaching.     86  Further, interview findings reported that teacher-learner interaction in some classes was conducive more than others.  The learners were free to participate and interact with the teachers. It was contended that teachers enjoyed it when learners were free and open with them in the learning process. The classroom observation data from school A and C were in tandem with the interview data, which revealed the existence of teacher-learner interaction. In a lesson, teacher learner interaction was seen, as the teacher was able to engage individual learners to participate in the lesson.  However, it was observed that teacher-learner interaction had some limitations when utilized throughout the lesson. The study showed that learners were not given enough time to practice language and that teachers and learners were seen code switching the language from English to Nyanja in the learning process. Code switching was observed in all the observed lessons.  This implied that code switching served as a bridge in helping language learners grasp concepts in a familiar language. In addition, the teachers utilized this practice in order to explain, clarify concepts and provide learners with simpler ways of grasping new language elements. Due to code switching, the study indicated that learners were more comfortable in using a familiar language and this helped them to learn the content more effectively. Similarly, Anyiendah (2017) indicated in his study that in upper primary, the learners’ only opportunity to use English Language is limited to the daily 35 minutes English lesson. The researcher in the study highlighted that learners were not given enough opportunities to practice English language in the classroom when learning other subjects because of switching from one language to the other. Teachers of other subjects kept on changing the language from English to either Kisahili or any other mother tongue because of incompetence in English language. Due to lower proficiency levels, the learners were seen code switching and this was a useful tool to them because they became more involved in the learning process as opposed to when English was the only language used in teaching and learning.  5.2.3 Learner-Teacher Interaction Findings of the study revealed that learner-teacher interaction was more challenging and less practiced because in most cases pupils were not free to ask questions due to language barrier, less individual attention or learners less opportunities to participate. Learners failed to     87  express themselves in terms of finding out or trying to seek for clarity from the teacher. This entailed that learners could not initiate the interactions themselves with the teacher unless the teacher enquired from them and allowed them to use a familiar language they were comfortable to use. In the same vein, Papaja (2019) observed that lack of vocabulary, insufficient self-confidence and misunderstanding affected classroom interaction. In many cases, the learners were afraid to speak in the foreign language and therefore, it was mainly the teacher who was in the centre.  The current study revealed that majority of learners could not voice out their opinions during lessons because they could not confidently use English to communicate with teacher and they feared to be laughed at when they made mistakes or failed to pronounce certain words in English.  Correspondingly, a study by Mbewe et al (2016) revealed that teachers perceived Nyanja as beneficial to the pupils in the early stages of literacy development because it enhanced increased teacher-pupil interaction in the learning process. The scenario is the same in upper primary. Moreover, the current study revealed that learners are more comfortable to answer in Nyanja than in English contrary to Mbewe’s findings, which discovered that learners preferred using English to Nyanja as their preferred language of instruction at lower primary. The language policy demands that English must be used as the language of instruction in upper primary. The implication of this is that, if teachers were to strictly follow what the language policy indicates concerning classroom language of instruction especially in upper primary school, the learners will end up not grasping any concepts taught and in the end learning will not take place.  In addition, Mokibelo (2015) examined the outcomes of learning a foreign language on the learners in rural primary schools of Botswana. The study indicated that learners found it difficult to acquire proficiency in English as a foreign language and this lead to poor performance in their academics. This entails that learners’ poor comprehensive skills, lack of understanding of concepts, and lack of acquisition can influence negatively on the learners’ general academic performance. This calls for teachers to reflect on the teaching and learning methods that suited learners who spoke home languages that are different from the school languages.   In contrast however, the study by Mbewe et al (2016) also revealed that parents regarded using Nyanja as a medium of instruction as retrogressive and not beneficial to their children     88  in acquiring future success in different life endeavors. The fact that teachers are the sole initiators of interaction in the teaching and learning, it is important that they use approaches of learning that encourage interactive language classroom despite the language that is used as a medium of communication, 5.2.4 Learner-Learner Interaction The study’s findings showed that learner-learner interaction was another type of interaction that was mostly used in teaching and learning where teachers mostly used group work. It was also revealed that learners in groups normally used simplified forms of language so it made it easier for them to understand concepts and to be autonomous. The results support those of Saeed, Khaksari, Eng & Ghani (2016) whose study indicated that learner-learner interaction played a significant role in the classroom since learners were able to improve their speaking skill in the classroom atmosphere. The study’s pedagogical implications of the findings suggested that, there was need to include communicative language teaching materials, which would help language learners, practice language in the hope of improving their speaking abilities through the interactions.  Similarly, Webb (1982) concluded in his study that an individual’s role in-group interaction is an important influence on learning, and that interaction can best be predicted from multiple characteristics of the individual, group, and setting. This implied that when the learners are on their own in their respective groups, even those who are shy are able to participate freely because they can use a language they are comfortable with. Teachers therefore, should just be there as a guides or facilitators.  Additionally, lesson observations showed that most teachers used group work when they wanted the pupils to interact without considering other interactive techniques like the use of technology, games, presentations, role play, debate, group projects, peer tutoring, jigsaw activities among others within the constructivist framework. Varying interactive techniques accords learners opportunities to practice and develop communicative skills. Evidently, in one of the observed lesson, particularly the one on ‘Alphabetical Order’, the teacher asked learners to arrange words in alphabetical order but it seemed most of them did not understand the task at hand.  Surprisingly, when one of the group members explained to the rest of the group members, the pupils affirmed their understanding by stating that they now understood what the teacher was trying to communicate to them.  The implication of this means that     89  group work is one of the techniques, which facilitates learner-learner interaction. For group activities to be successful, teachers have to give clear instructions, give engaging tasks coupled with good group management to the learners. These findings are in tandem with Khoiriyah (2018) who observed that by working in group, the students had chance to make dialogues, communicate with each other among students, and had more social learning environment. By working in groups, the learners could be corrected, concepts could be discussed more broadly, and learners could share their opinions and exchange ideas to improve speaking skill. Teachers therefore, must create fun activities were learners can exchange ideas and correct each other’s mistakes. Based on the classroom lesson observation data, this study concluded that learner to learner interaction was effective but there was need to explore further in terms of creating more fun and educative activities that can stimulate learners interest. 5.2.5 Learner - Books or Resources Interaction It is vital to mention that during the interview none of the head teachers, HODs or teachers mentioned this type of interaction. The searcher noticed that the learners interacted with books that were availed to them in the learning. In support of this, Lap and Thy (2017) indicated that learner-content interaction occurs when learners encounter reading materials related to the target subject matter. Unfortunately, the research findings showed that books were in short supply and that teachers made use of the few copies that were available to them. Lap and Thy furthers revealed that, in order to maximize learner-content interaction, learners need to be provided with various accessible sources of learning materials and be exposed to English environments in which they might read and listen in English. In addition, if learners access books, they can be introduced to new grammar structures and vocabulary in a contextualized way, making them more meaningful and promoting interaction for clarification and practice.   The study further revealed that having learning materials which learners can interact with, is not a problem, the problem lies in the fact that most learners lack interest in reading and this was attributed to the fact that some books did not cater to their interest, the class libraries in the two classes that were observed were poorly stocked and that the learners had limited exposure to reading aloud. The researcher was also informed that most learners were not     90  fluent in reading and others could not read at all. It was therefore suggested that, there is need to develop a reading culture in the learners, encourage daily read aloud, provide books of interest and expose them to a variety of reading materials. However, it must be indicated that teachers should be the first ones to love reading so that learners can get encouraged and emulate. In addition, the researcher noticed that majority of classes did not display wall charts, which can aid learners to interact more from talking walls apart from just books. Display of wall charts can improve learners’ vocabulary and improve language proficiency. Despite the scarcity of books, wall charts and other resource materials, the researcher was able to witness a teacher using word cards during teaching and learning.  This implied this teacher’s creativity went beyond lesson planning and classroom decorations (wall charts). Being creative and resourceful allows teachers to personalize approaches, methods and techniques in shaping the entire learning process. However, in the lessons it was observed that, some learners had difficulties reading words, phrases or sentences and had low levels of language fluency. This showed that the interaction of learner-books/resources was not as effective as it should have been in classes because learners were not exposed to a variety of reading materials. Reading and writing depends on the interaction between learner and learning materials like a variety of books, magazines, comics, diagrams, playing games, multimedia, word card and talking walls. Correspondingly, Maala and Mkandawire (2022) recommended that teachers can use media so that learners can be more engaged in the teaching and learning process. By using electronic media, the learners in the teaching and learning process can become more active in participating in classroom activities (Khoiriyah, 2018). 5.2.6 Teacher-Books or Resources Interaction The findings on this type of interaction showed that indeed teachers always interact with books and other resource materials but they were not aware that it’s a type of interaction used in teaching and learning. The document review of a planned lesson collected from one school on the topic Alphabetical Order revealed that the teacher only had two books used for planning. The lack of teaching and learning materials can affect the structure of lesson planning and delivery of instructions. The implication is that, without proper teaching and learning materials for teachers to use in planning, they may face challenges in designing the     91  lesson that matches the needs of the learners. In other words, limited access to resources can lead to limited access to information and knowledge, which can hinder learners’ ability to learn and teachers’ ability to teach effectively. This is in line with Mwanza (2022) who suggested that a combination of various practices could be used for effective learning. This can take effect if the teachers have the necessary teaching and learning materials to use for their planning and teaching. In addition, one of the interesting findings in the study revealed that a teacher made use of Religious books to teach English. The participant explained that she uses books for Jehovah’s Witness just to help learners with reading skills. Some HODs confirmed that, teachers with passion are the ones who are resourceful because they do not limit themselves when it comes to sourcing for teaching and learning materials. Teachers therefore, are encourage to be creative and source for a variety of books when preparing for the learners. They should not just rely on the books availed to them by the school but also use books from outside that can expand on their knowledge on the subject matter. The findings are in tandem with Chella et al (2023) and Kafusha etal (2021) who observed that developing a reading culture among learners demand the use of diverse forms of print to introduce learners to diverse vocabulary and contexts. Owing to this, it is important to note that poor lesson preparations can lead to clueless teaching in that, teachers may not set clear objectives, pupils activities and teaching and learning materials to be used. Hence, the teaching will not be effective and interactive.  5.3 Views of Teachers on the importance of Class Interactions The study's second research objectives intended to ascertain the views of teachers on the importance of class interaction. The participants were asked to state their views on the importance of class interaction. The findings of the study determined that majority of the teachers showed a positive feeling towards classroom interactions. Participants believed that interaction is crucial and important for the development of communication skills in English language. Some teachers believed that classroom interaction improves the learning process and enhance learning efficiency. This implied that involving learners in interactive class activities increased opportunities for them to learn more as opposed to being passive in class. These findings corresponded with the study by Khoiriyah (2018) who observed that the     92  purpose of classroom interaction is to switch information, thoughts and sharing experience. Therefore, classroom interaction is important in teaching and learning process. In the era of communicative language teaching, interaction is important in communication. Mwanza (2022) in his study recommended that teachers of English language should make sure that their classroom practices reflect all the four dimensions of communicative competence namely: grammatical, sociolinguistics, discourse and strategic competence. In collaboration, Lap and Thy (2017) added that classroom interaction plays a significant role in facilitating learners’ development of communicative competence by making input more comprehensible to learners and maximizing the language input to become learners’ intake. The holistic nature of communicative language teaching focuses its overall picture on learning new language rather than small aspects of it such as grammar competence. Instead of focusing on grammatical errors, which the learners are most afraid of during class interaction, teachers should focus on fluency and learners interest as means of acquiring language skills such as learning grammar. In addition, communicative language teaching is engaging and learner centered approach to teaching in which activities are focused on learners instead of the teacher in the teaching of English language. In the same vein, Chai (2015) added that teachers should communicate with students and students should communicate with students democratically and equally through language.   Additionally, Chai (2015) also mentioned that to make the students interested and think independently, questions should be related to the real lives of students and real problem. For example, a teacher of English designs a plan in language practice activities, the requirement for the students is to exchange what their family did last weekend, or what they want to be after graduation, their ideal occupation and what their ideal life is, which is easier to arouse the interest of students, and allow students to truly express their thoughts and feelings. A very important point raised by some participants in the study was that it was not just about class interaction but effective class interaction that mattered in a class environment.  In the same vein, Zhang and Gao (2019) revealed that to ensure the high quality of classroom interaction, the form of classroom interaction, the pattern of classroom interaction and the appropriate roles played respectively by the teacher and students should be put in proper place and receive deserved attention. Similarly, two studies concluded showed that it was     93  necessary to reflect on the teaching and learning methods that suited learners who speak home languages that are different from the school languages (Mokibelo, 2015; Mkandawire, 2017). The implication of this is that the classroom becomes a vibrant interactive space for the learners and the teachers.  The study also discovered that some learners who were active participants shared and transmitted information to those that were not very active in the learning process. However, it is unfortunate that inactive learners had less opportunities to learn better because they did not explicitly express themselves during learning unless when they were prompted. This finding conformed to the findings of Rogti (2019) who stated that teachers are challenged to find approaches in the classroom, which prove to be efficient in helping students, have adequate understanding after each task or lesson set. This implies that teachers have to utilize individualized learning where they use methods that are tailored to focus on the needs of individual learners especially those that are not active in class. This means that the use of methods, techniques, strategies, resources and assessments should meet the needs of a particular learner to expand opportunities for academic growth. Correspondingly, Anjaneyulu (2015) also reported that majority of the teachers were not professionally equipped to teach English and that they were not aware of appropriate methods of teaching English in the classroom.  In contrast, the teachers in the current study seemed not to be exposed to a variety of interactive techniques, which promote classroom interaction. In addition, Sampa’s study revealed that majority of learners insisted that teachers did not use a variety of interactive techniques aside from group discussions, individual work, question and answer, charts, pair work class discussions and quizzes. Application of a variety of interactive techniques implies inclusive learning where all learners show interest in the subject, participate freely and connect with peers. It also helps to boost self-confidence, self-reliance and to overcome the barriers of language. Through a variety of techniques, interaction in class is effective and a teacher can easily see how participative learners become. Pupils are encouraged to take part in-group work or in any work assigned to them as long as the technique used suits their learning abilities.     94  The study further revealed that learners come from different social backgrounds with different upbringing. Working together may bring about accepting one another’s values and individual differences. In comparison, a study by Roche (2017) reviewed that educators reported being very aware of both the educational and emotional needs of the learners, as well as the impact of the family background on the learners’ behavior. The findings of the study indicated that educators from the less resourced school experienced frustration and stress in grappling with the learners’, particularly challenging home lives, as well as the inefficiency of the education department, in matters such as assessing learners or placing them correctly according to their needs. This implied that a lack of support from parents’ teachers and peers in school can lead to negative concept about self and believe that learners are not good enough. This can further impact on the learners’ performance in academic in general. It is through class interaction that the learners learn to tolerate, support, and encourage one another in the of name working together to solve a problem. In addition, a teacher in the current study revealed that, in her years of teaching, she discovered that when interactions are consistent and positive, the learners develop long term relationships with their teachers and their peers and these relationships have the potential to help develop learners’ social and emotional growth.  Moreover, lack of positive relationship between teachers and learners is a results of poor teaching. In collaboration, Camp (2011) conducted a study on the power of teacher-student relationships in determining student success. The findings showed that the teachers believed that there is value in forming and maintaining positive and supportive relationships with students in providing for their academic achievement and behavioral success. Simply put, positive interaction between the teacher and the learners enhances the rate of educational success for learners. Teachers are therefore encouraged to give feedback to learners to support their feelings of competence so as to make them more confident, secure and sure of themselves in the learning process.  Tiwari (2021) as observed in the study showed that, one of the English teachers stated that, in the context of Nepal, they teach English in EFL situation. The study reviewed that, students only got an opportunity to practice English inside the classroom or inside school environment. Apart from that, when they got back to their homes, they did not have any kind     95  of exposure to practice English outside the school situation. The classroom situation was the main place where students got a chance to practice their English. The current study however revealed that, majority of learners used the local language which was Nyanja when they were outside of the classroom. One teacher in the interview mentioned that, she always encouraged the learners to use English when outside playing with peers. She believed that the more they used the language the more they become better at it. The participants further said that, learners may not see the importance of using English now but they should know that it is a language that is used worldwide so they just have to learn. Learners need to know that we learn by making mistakes and that if they do not practice, it means they will not know how to speak the language. This implies that the learners need to take it upon themselves to be more involved in using English language in every situation there in, in order to enhance their lives and the opportunities available to them after school. 5.4 The Interaction Challenges faced by Grade Five Teachers of English Language The third objective was aimed at finding out the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English and seek solutions to those challenges. The results of the study showed that the most common challenges faced by language teachers were: language barrier, over enrolment, limited or lack of teaching and learning resources among others.  5.4.1 Language Barrier The findings of the study showed that language barrier was the most common problem teachers always encountered while teaching English language has it hindered learners understanding in the teaching and learning process. Majority of participants pointed out that learners had difficulties expressing themselves in English because they had low language proficiency and as a result, teachers resorted to switching back to Nyanja when teaching. Moreover, some participants further stated that teaching classes with learners who spoke more than two languages posed more challenges because some learners spoke languages that even the teachers themselves could not clearly comprehend. Participants mentioned that most of the leaners did not like using English inside or outside the classroom.  This makes it very difficult to implement the policy of using English as a language of instruction in upper primary since the language policy stipulates that English should be the language of instruction from Grade Five onwards. In the same way, Monyai (2010) on meeting the     96  challenges of Black English second language South African learners in ex-model c primary schools revealed that the black South African learners in ex-Model C schools faced numerous challenges owing to their limited English proficiency, and that they did not meet the requirements to pass their grades. The study further revealed that there are other contributing factors to the learners’ challenges, such as teachers who cannot assist the learners in the language that the learners understand (indigenous languages). This implied that there is need for teachers and learners to be exposed to alternative methods of building vocabulary in order to improve in the language.  In addition, Mkandawire (2022) cited multiple factors contributing to low performance by pupils in literacy and these included the teacher factor, linguistic diversity, poverty, materials, political will, and neurological factors. Linguistic diversity relates to language barrier. Participants during the interview expressed linguistic barriers in their classrooms. On the contrary, the findings showed that some teachers felt that it was pointless to restrict the learners to a language they were not conversant with during teaching and further emphasized that what was important was to make learning easy for learners in a language they were familiar with. These results are consistent with the research by Zimba (2007), who revealed that when learners are taught in a language they are familiar with, they are able to do better than those who are not. The study by Zimba showed that, many Tumbuka speaking learners had problems understanding Nyanja. It was determined that when learners attempted to speak, read, or write Nyanja, they frequently made mistakes. This clearly suggests that learners can effectively learn when concepts are taught in a language they can understand as opposed to an unfamiliar one. Therefore, teachers at upper primary must ensure that the language of instruction in their classrooms satisfies the linguistic needs of the learners. For the policy to be followed, this calls for betters transitioning from lower to upper primary as Zulu (2019) demonstrated that the teachers did not have a common way of transitioning as some were using abrupt transitioning while the majority were using gradual transitioning.  The study indicated that it was important that primary teachers should be trained on how to transition at grade five level since at this level they are introduced to English as a language of instruction.      97  Additionally, these challenges could be attributed to the fact that at upper primary, learners are not groomed enough to be proficient in the use of English as they move to higher grades. This is so because teachers mostly switch to local languages if the learners are not able to understand the concepts being taught in English. This meant that learners had not broken through to literacy (in English) hence, making it challenging for them to receive educational instructions exclusively in English. Thus, some teachers resorted to code switching which is a process of shifting from one linguistic code (a language or dialect) to another, depending on the social context or conversational setting while others still wanted to maintain the use of English as policy demanded. This impact can be seen in the study Mwanza (2020) conducted.  In order to overcome the challenge of language barrier, the study suggested that in instances where a learner failed to participate because they could not speak English in or outside the classroom teachers should use both English and the familiar local language. In the same way, Mwanza (2020) and Iversen and Mkandawire (2020) criticized the concept of having regional languages to teach learners from Grade 1 to 4 in the sense that the regional languages do not represent the actual languages of play. Therefore, one would argue that if learners are not familiar with the language used in the teaching and learning process, their level of engagement in classroom is likely to be low. The study further revealed that deploying teachers in places where they came from was better because when learners do not understand English, the teacher is able to explain in a familiar local language but if the teacher is not conversant with that local language, it becomes a big challenge. The teacher therefore, is forced to use a learner who can understand that language to communicate in the learning process. 5.4.2 Over Enrollment  The study revealed over enrollment as one of the biggest challenges affecting classroom interactions. It further indicated that there were two main problems which came as a result of over enrollment. Firstly, some teachers mentioned over crowded classes and secondly, lack of teaching and learning materials. For the teachers to have interactive classrooms, they need to have enough time with individual learners during teaching and learning. Unfortunately, the allocated 40 minutes per period is not enough to interact with each and     98  every learner especially if classes have over 80 pupils against 1 teacher.  Class interaction is affected because there are too many pupils in class and it becomes more difficult for some teachers to manage the learners in such a class. In addition, there is limited participation because learners may feel intimidated to participate in discussions leading to passive learning. In the same vein, Anjaneyulu (2015) study focused on problems faced by the teachers in teaching English language in government schools in Telangana State. In the study, teachers felt that size of classroom, lack of resources, and quantum of workload affected the teaching in the classroom. This implies that lack of appropriate methods could lead to poor student academic performance. If learners are exposed to poor teaching, they will not acquire the basic skills or grasp the subject matter and this can lead to poor academic performance.  Further, one of the Head teachers reported that they face a number of challenges when it comes to admission of learners because of the policy of free education. The introduction of free education was designed to increase access to quality education unfortunately learners are not accessing quality education due to overcrowded classes. The implication of this is that over enrolment affects coordination of instructional processes in the school which leads to poor academic achievement and causes inadequate infrastructure. During lesson observation, the researcher witnessed how learners were sharing desks so that everyone could be accommodated. This posed a serious challenge because the learners could not write properly due to lack of writing space.  To overcome over enrolment, an appeal to the government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) was made to construct more schools and upgrade the existing one. Not only that, the government should deploy more teachers and supply more desks to cope with overcrowded classes.  Further, the majority of participants indicated that there was need for serious Continuous Professional Development (CPD) to remind teachers or educate them on the methods or techniques that can be employed to improve class interactions in theses over crowded classes.  5.4.3 Limited or Lack of Teaching and Learning Resources Teaching and learning materials are the tools for teachers and learners so without these tools, teaching and learning can be a challenge. The study findings indicated that most of the     99  schools did not have enough materials to use for teaching and learning. These findings are supported by multiple studies indicating that teaching language requires not only the skill, knowledge of subject, methods and strategies but also infrastructural facilities like language laboratory, teaching aids, teaching learning materials and teacher's resources books, audio-visual aid and other resources (Chella et al., 2023; Mkandawire et al., 2022; Anjaneyulu 2015; Lungu & Mkandawire, 2022; Kafusha et al., 2021; Mkandawire et al., 2023). Participants in the current study explained that it was always a challenge for the teachers and learners when it came to materials for use. This implied that planning was difficult for the teachers and learners struggled a lot especially when they were assigned work to do using pupils’ books. In other words, the learners were not exposed to a variety of books thereby compromising on the interaction. In addition, lack of teaching and learning materials can affected the learners because without visual aids, they can find it difficult to stay engaged in the lesson and contribute during discussions. Moreover, it can hinder opportunities for learners to explore concepts in a hands on way and this can discourage creative thinking and problem solving which are essential for deeper learning. Mwanza (2020) confirms the challenges of learning material as most of his participants in his research reported that lack of books affected the effectiveness of interaction and the overall learning process.  To overcome the challenge, participants indicated that the Government of the Republic of Zambia with other stakeholders should come in and provide a variety of learning materials for teachers and learners. In addition, create active school libraries and library corners in classes with a variety of local and foreign books to create a reading atmosphere for the pupils and the teachers. Further, participants mentioned that learners should utilize clubs like spelling club, Debate club and other literacy programmes that can help them improve their language proficiency. Learners cannot explore if the classrooms do not have enough learning resources. Therefore, there is need for learners, teachers, parents and the government to work together and develop materials to help solve this challenge. Additionally, other participants mentioned that teaching and learning of information subjects must be reduced in order to create more time for English language lessons where learners can practice language. The current situation is that English lessons are taught within 40 minutes as a single period. When it is a double, the time is enough to engage most learners in interactive activities and language practice during teaching and learning process.       100  5.5 Theoretical Implication   The findings of the study implied that majority of teachers utilized teacher-learner (question and answer) and learner-learner (group work) interactions as the most effective ones, without considering other interactive types within the constructivist framework such as debates, role plays, group projects, jigsaw activities and so on where learners can work together, share knowledge and develop essential skills while deepening their understanding of the subject matter. In addition, teachers needed to foster collaborative learning and providing opportunities for meaningful conversations as suggested by (Vygotsky ,1978) theory of social constructivism which emphasizes active learning and collaboration. Teachers can empower learners to become confident and effective communicators both within the classroom and beyond since they naturally learn best through play and interaction. Constructivism fosters a dynamic classroom environment where they can explore the language and experiment with communication.  The absence or lack of teaching and learning materials and its implication is that it can be challenging for teachers to offer guidance and activities within the zone of proximal development, potentially leaving learners directionless. In addition, without materials, teachers might struggle to provide the necessary guidance for learners within their ZPD. The prepared lessons might lack focus or direction leaving learners unsure of what is expected of them to learn and how to approach the assigned tasks. Simply put, the absence of teaching and learning materials can hinder the effectiveness of scaffolding instruction within the ZPD. 5.6 Chapter Summary This chapter has presented the discussions of the study in accordance with the research objectives.  The next chapter deals with the conclusion and recommendations.          101  CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS  6.1 Overview In this chapter, conclusions will be given based on the research objectives and questions of the study. In addition, recommendations based on the findings will be presented and suggestions for further research. 6.2 Conclusion With reference to objective number 1, some findings revealed that the nature of class interactions were partially conducive in some classes but not all. Some learners were able to communicate, answer teachers’ questions despite some limitations in language proficiency compared to others in other classes. The findings also showed that majority of teachers tried to code switch the language used in class in order to create interaction opportunities for learners who were unable to express themselves fully and freely in English. The findings further showed that, teachers were not creative enough in utilizing a variety of interactive techniques to promote class interactions.    With reference to objective number 2, research findings revealed that, class interactions were important and that teachers employed interactive techniques like group work, whole class discussions and individual work to promote interactions. In addition, it was indicated that it was important to have class interactions because it was an effective way learners could share ideas and learn from one another while interacting. Participants believed that class interactions were crucial for the development of communication skills in English language because learners got more involved in the learning process.    With reference to objective number 3, the study revealed that majority of teachers faced challenges when employing interactive activities in class. The challenges included: language barrier which hindered class interactions, over enrolment which affected teacher-pupil ratio and participation, especially that the Government declared free education. Other participants indicated lack of teaching/ learning materials and other supportive or supplementary materials for teaching language.       102  6.3 General Recommendations  Based on the findings of the study, the following are some of the recommendations: 1. The Ministry of Education through the policy should consider the use both English and the familiar local language (code switch) to cater for those learners who find it difficult to interact because they cannot speak English in Grade Five classes. 2. District Officials, Head teachers and Teachers must consistently conduct Continuous Professional Development meetings to stay updated on new teaching methods, techniques, best language practices and approaches to foster collaborative, engaging and interactive lessons through problem solving. 3. English lesson time should be increased to accommodate teachers and learners practice the language in order to interact effectively and improve speaking fluency. 4. Teachers should tailor individualized learning as a teaching method to accommodate diverse language proficiency levels within Grade Five classrooms and provide language support resources such as bilingual dictionaries so that learners can enrich their vocabulary. 5. Teacher creativity is encouraged to step away from traditional methods and embrace methods that promote interaction. 6. The Government of Zambia should deploy more teachers, construct more schools and upgrade the existing ones to standardize the number of learners in class in order to foster interactions and active learning. 7. The Ministry of Education through Curriculum Development Center should develop and distribute a variety of teaching and learning materials to provide a wider range of language materials for the learners to interact with.  6.4 Recommendations for Further Research The researcher made the following suggestion for further research or studies.  Using the present study, a comparative study of a private and public school can be conducted using different instruments. 103  REFERENCES Abubakar, B. S. (2021). Interaction in the English Language Classroom: A Review of Teacher Questions: Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities: University Putra Malaysia. Administrative Methods (2010). Assessment Methods: Document Analysis [Internet]. 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Do learners in your class understand the use of English as a medium of instruction?  3. In an event a learner fails to communicate in English during teaching and learning process what do you do? B. Establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions? 4. What interaction types do you use in your teaching? 5. What are your views on the importance of class interaction in the teaching of English language? 6. Which interaction type do you prefer and why? C. Investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District. 7. What are the common challenges that interfere with effective classroom interaction? 8. How do you overcome these challenges? 10. Briefly give your suggestion on how you overcome those challenges in promoting quality class interactions. 11. Any other comment on the topic under discussion?         116  APPENDIX D: Interview Guide for Senior Teachers A. Determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English Language classroom. 1. In your own view, what do you understand by class interaction? 2. How do learners respond to learning in English as a medium of instruction?  3. In an event a learner fails to communicate in English during teaching and learning process what do you as a teacher do? B. Establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions? 4. What interaction types do you use in your teaching? 5. What are your views on the importance of class interaction in the teaching of English language? 6. Which interaction type do you prefer and why? C. Investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District. 7. What are some of the common challenges that interfere with effective classroom interaction? 8. How do teachers overcome those challenges? 19. What do you do as the immediate supervisor to help the teachers overcome these challenges in promoting class interaction? 11. Any other comment on the topic under discussion?         117  APPENDIX E: Interview Guide for Head Teachers A. Determine the nature of class interactions in Grade Five English Language classroom. 1. What was your reaction on the introduction of English as a medium of instruction starting from Grade Five?  2. As a school administrator, were you consulted by the ministry of education on the need to introduce local language from grade 1-4 and the use of English as a medium of instruction starting from Grade Five? 3. In your view, what do you understand by class interaction in a Grade Five English classroom? B. Establish the views of teachers on the importance of class interactions? 4. How do teachers and learners interact during teaching and learning? 5. Which interaction types do they use in their teaching? 7. 5. What are your views on the importance of class interaction in the teaching of English language? 6. What are some of the interactive activities do teachers involve learners in? C. Investigate the interaction challenges faced by Grade Five teachers of English language in Lusaka District. 6. What are the common challenges teachers face that interfere with effective classroom interaction? 7. Briefly give suggestions on how you overcome challenges in promoting class interactions in Grade 5 classrooms? 9. Any other comment on the topic under discussion.       118  APPENDIX F: Class Lesson Observation Guide. CATEGORY OBSERVATION FOCUS Types of interaction Frequency, purpose of interaction types Language function Initiating, responding, maintain conversation Scaffolding Strategies used to promote interaction Classroom environment Conducive for interaction or not

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